tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-20133316159071368852024-03-07T21:41:06.059-08:00Assorted Env EssaysAnthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.comBlogger15125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-53692129757797392012011-07-28T00:43:00.000-07:002011-07-28T00:43:01.165-07:00Conceptualisation of Sustainable Development<div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Sustainable development is a concept that has been debated in the international community for over twenty years and it has become one of the small set of concepts that has almost worldwide support (Hattingh, 2002). Our Common Future, known commonly as the Brundtand report was published in 1987 (United Nations, 1987) and since then sustainable development has been an issue debated without much consensus. Within sustainable development literature the concept of sustainable development is described as the “supreme global political issue of this century” (Prugh & Assadourian, 2003) and despite a feeling of preaching to the converted it has received attention from many different national governments and international organisations, despite this however there is still little wide scale action or change taking place. An impression of inaction and uneven implementation is felt about sustainable development policies in high consumption societies (Sneddon, Howarth & Norgaard, 2006). Australia itself is seen as being far from achieving sustainability and facing immense challenges (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). The reasons given for this include the wide range of sectors that can be covered within sustainable development. A proposed Australian sustainability charter is to cover at a minimum; the built environment, water, energy, transport, ecological footprint, economics, waste, social equity and health and community engagement and education (The Parliament of Australia, 2007). These sectors are the responsibilities of different levels of government within countries and the conflicting responsibilities between these levels of government is another reason often given for the lack of progress towards sustainable development (Smith, Blake & Davies, 2000, Nelson, Howden & Smith, 2008 and Buhrs & Aplin, 1999). Another reason for a lack of wide scale action is there are a variety of conflicting opinions on what exactly sustainable development is and what the aims of it should be, especially when combined with the difficulties environmentalists can have in even expressing why they feel the environment deserves protection. There is no single consensus on what the positive value of the environment is, nor is there a shared vision of the future in which people live in a more harmonious existence with the environment (Norton, 1991). In fact it appears that there has been an entire industry created centred around defining what sustainable development means to various groups (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz 2005). <br />
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The most widely quoted definition of sustainable development is the definition that comes from the Brundtland report, and that is “Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations, 1987). The ambiguity of this definition means that differences in what sustainable development means exist between the developed and developing world, people holding anthropocentric views and people holding ecocentric views and advocates of a strong interpretation of sustainability and those in favour of a weak interpretation of sustainability. This has lead to a variety of different theories on what sustainable development is, what it is trying to achieve and how it can achieve those aims (Hopwood, Mellor & O’Brien, 2005). Some feel that due to the wide variety of definitions that sustainable development is at risk of becoming meaningless, overused or even corrupted (Hopwood, Mellor & O’Brien, 2005 and Prugh & Assadourian, 2003) but a more positive view is that trying to force a single definition is neither productive or desirable and that sustainable development should in fact be viewed as a discourse instead (Buhrs & Aplin, 1999 and Harding, 1998). <br />
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Johan Hattingh (2002) has proposed a series of values questions that the different interpretations of sustainable development are trying to answer. These are, what is so important that we should strive to maintain it forever? With a view to whom or what should we pursue the sustainability of this valuable something? How should we pursue sustainability? And finally how would we know that we have moved nearer to or further away from sustainable development? <br />
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When reflecting on these questions the first thing that must be understood is the variety of viewpoints that can be found within the broad headline of sustainable development. Often these views can be quite different, so these views should be examined further. <br />
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One of the fundamental differences in peoples theories of sustainable development are anthropocentric views and ecocentric views. Anthropocentric views are centred on the environment existing to serve people and that the value of it is for the services it can provide for us. Anthropocentric views are often very technocentric too, that is the majority of environmental problems are able to be fixed technologically enabling a business as usual approach by most people (Beder, 1996). This faith in science and technology can often result in very top down expert management approach to sustainable development which can be criticised for its non partipatory nature (Hattingh, 2002, Buhrs & Aplin, 1999 and Nelson, Howden & Stafford Smith, 2008). “Science provides us with the knowledge we need. Now we need the wisdom to direct our collective action” (Adams & Jeanrenaud, 2008) is a quote that shows the fundamental faith in science and technology that can be found throughout much sustainable development literature. From an anthropocentric viewpoint the value of the environment is utilitarian, in contrast to the intrinsic value that the environment has from an ecocentric point of view. The intrinsic value given to the environment from this ecocentric view is very difficult to quantify and will differ greatly between groups and individuals, and has been identified as one of the environmentalist’s main dilemmas (Norton, 1991). <br />
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With regards to sustainable development the contrast of weak vs strong sustainability is also important. Weak sustainability is characterised by the notion that sustainable development has been achieved if the overall stock of capital has been maintained over time (Hattingh, 2002). The criticism of this viewpoint is that all environmental capital that it is not economically valuable could be traded for enough built or economic capital. Literature produced by groups with a very pronounced weak view of sustainability like the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD (1996) can almost entirely ignore the natural environment in favour of building economic and social capital. A model of five different and interchangeable capital types; natural, human, social, manufactured and financial capital (Forum for the future, undated) shows how a weak view of sustainability can on the surface appear to be moving towards sustainable development but the weakness is that with enough rewards in the other areas of capital significant depletion can occur to the worlds stores of natural capital. A strong view of sustainability however requires that a store of natural capitals be maintained over time with a view towards intergenerational equity, feeling that the provision of economic, social and built capital alone will not make up for the loss of the natural capital for future generations. A weak view of sustainability cannot be used to challenge patterns of current production and consumption and that damage ecosystems but have high financial rewards (Hattingh, 2002) as it is linked quite closely to anthropocentric and technocentric views aimed at maintaining the status quo. While a stronger view of sustainability recognises the natural environment as having an intrinsic value could be used to challenge current patterns of production and consumption its very nature makes it a more controversial view as it challenges the status quo and would require some changes to decision making processes. A stronger view of sustainability would try and value the services the environment offers rather than just the products and anything that we cannot replace and cannot live without could been possibly seen as having infinite value (Hawken, Lovins & Lovins, undated). The environment was even shifted away from the centre stage at the UN World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002, relative to the position it occupied at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 in favour of issues such as poverty alleviation (Tilbury, 2003). This doesn’t mean the environment is the sole focus of sustainable development however as issues such as food security and economic inequality can very easily lead to conflict which is disastrous for sustainable development. “When half the world is starving and the other half’s on a diet I can tell why we’ve gone to hell and it’s time to start a riot” (The Disables, 2005). <br />
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A final conflict of what is required for and by sustainable development is between developing and developed countries. Sustainable development requires the countries of the world to be working together as a minority of countries moving towards sustainability with the majority continuing to develop and grow unsustainably if fundamentally unsustainable. This requires at least broad agreement in approach by the majority of countries, which in turn requires the agreement of both developed and developing countries and this has been an area of conflict in previous years. At the World summit in Johannesburg Thabo Mbeki even singled out the growing gap between developing and developed countries as a global apartheid (Tilbury, 2003). Inequalities have increased within and between societies which makes achieving social and environmental goals difficult (Sneddon, Howarth & Norgaard, 2005). The difference between developing and developed countries had been observed as a heavy “environmental” agenda by developed countries and a heavy “development” agenda in developing countries at the Rio Earth Summit (Fien & Tilbury, 1998). While the world is a better place to live now than ever before, the lives of some people are better and the lives of others are worse both absolutely and relatively. This means that human security and welfare has not necessarily improved over the years that sustainable development has been being discussed (Khosla, undated). Development cannot been seen just as the increase in Gross Domestic Produce but rather a reduction in insecurities of the people in the world (Sen, undated) both within countries and in particular between countries, like those between the developed and developing world. As early as the Brundtland report however it was recognised that there is no set of villains and victims in the debate of inequality relating to sustainable development (United Nations, 1987) it also identified that growth is more important in developing countries than developed ones as it is in these countries where the links between economic growth, poverty reduction and environmental protection are most closely linked. Economic growth is a necessity for sustainable development, particularly in developing countries as a zero growth model would trap developing countries and people living in poverty in those circumstances due to the unequal distribution of resources (Hattingh, 2002), thus a steady state zero growth economy occurring in particular in the developing world would not lead to sustainable development. This means that while the developed countries environmental protection agenda is important to achieve sustainable development, the growth agenda of developing countries is also valid as it is aimed at alleviating the inequalities felt by these countries, inequalities that if not addressed could lead at worst to conflict and at the very least an unsustainable existence. <br />
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These conflicts highlight the diversity of opinions as to what sustainable development is and should be and how to achieve it. There have been three pillars of sustainable development widely identified; the environment, the economy and equity as the goals and targets of a transition to sustainable development (Leiserowitz, Kates & Parris, 2004). In Australia it has been proposed that a sustainability charter be introduced with a definition of sustainability in an Australian context included (The Parliament of Australia, 2007). So 20 years after the Brundtland report first defined sustainable development the very definition of it within countries is still being discussed. One thing that is agreed upon within much of the sustainable development literature is that following the status quo will not achieve sustainability and that widespread institutional change is necessary for progress towards a more sustainable society and that significant political will is needed for this to occur (Adams & Jeanrenaud, 2008, Hawken, Lovins & Lovins, undated, Kates, 2005, Runnalls, 2008, Sneddon, Howarth & Norgaard, 2005, Hopwood, Mellor & O’Brien, 2005, Buhrs and Aplin, 1999). These authors may not always agree what institutional change is necessary but they all feel that at least some form of institutional change is required, if not a complete value change. The difficulty of bringing about this change is acknowledged by some authors and while transformation may not immediately be possible a degree of reform now (with an eye towards transformation later) is seen as better than nothing at all (Hopwood, Mellor & O’Brien, 2005). This is why Prugh and Assadourian (2003) feel sustainable development will be one of the supreme political issues of the century. The institutional change required alone would be a momentous political issue both requiring both strong political leadership and will at the international level within the United Nations and at the various government levels within individual countries. <br />
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When returning to the questions asked by Hattingh it is an ideological value judgement being made when we provide our answers. As such this will vary from person to person (Hattingh, 2002). Hattingh’s questions were; what is so important that we should strive to maintain it forever? With a view to whom or what should we pursue the sustainability of this valuable something? How should we pursue sustainability? And finally how would we know that we have moved nearer to or further away from sustainable development? <br />
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An obvious and relatively simplistic yet unsatisfactory answer would be life itself is what we should aim to maintain forever. Apocalyptic literature has provided many end scenarios for humans as a species, indeed 99.9% of all species that have existed on earth are currently extinct (Prothero, 2004) but it is felt that as a species humans are in no immediate danger of extinction even due to a cataclysmic event (Prugh & Assadourian, 2003). A more appropriate answer may be that we should attempt to pursue a satisfactory quality of life for all people. History offers many examples of human culture that were unequitable and unjust yet managed to survive for a long time (Prugh & Assadourian, 2003). A baseline future common to most future thinking groups generally is one of a both high and equitable quality of life for all people (Hicks, 1996). To achieve this quality of life not only does the environment need to be protected (to support the life itself) but equity is required to minimise any conflict and economic growth will be needed to help achieve this equity, especially for developing countries. For one of the most common generators of conflict is inequality and conflict can push back development in a country by generations (DAC, 1996). <br />
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If increasing the quality of life is the aim of sustainable development the view we are pursuing it for would be for the community of life in its entirety, but a particular focus is being maintained on human life. This focus on human life would require an intergenerational approach with a strong view of sustainability to help maintain not only economic and social capital but natural capital as well, due to our inability to predict the needs and desires of future generations. <br />
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A traditional top down centralised expert model of decision making for sustainable development has been identified as undesirable and less effective (Buhrs & Aplin, 1999, Nelson, Howden & Stafford Smith, 2008 and Smith, Blake & Davies, 2000). A bottom up consensus model also has problems, technical expertise cannot entirely be replaced by local knowledge and the process can be much more time consuming and regionally less effective due to different approaches taken by local groups and their successes and failures (Smith, Blake & Davies, 2000). Both top down and bottom up strategies have good and bad points so an ideal would be a combination of the two approaches, which would require removal of the obstacles to these processes occurring, particularly within a federal system of government like Australia’s (Buhrs & Aplin, 1999). <br />
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Finally the recognition of whether or not sustainability is being achieved cannot be made solely by financial indicators, as these give no indication of whether these gains to capital are being shared equitably. Indeed GDP has increased markedly over the last few decades but so has income inequality worldwide, GDP in the United States increased by 92% between 1970 and 2000 yet the GPI increased only 4% (Prugh & Assadourian, 2003). Regardless of the indicators chosen however they do not read themselves, nor do they register whether or not something is sustainable, the process of constructing and interpreting indicators requires collaborative judgement (Foster, 2001) and this requires input from all stakeholders in the decision making process. If indicators are to be taken from a list of things that are wished to be sustained and things wished to be developed an extraordinarily large list of indicators is developed reflecting both the malleability of sustainable development and the internal politics of the measurement efforts. A brief summary of indicators used for sustainable development with a variety of initiative shows a variation of between 6 and 255 different indicators for a single sustainable development initiative (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz 2005). The Department of Economic and Social Affairs uses energy, industrial development, atmospheric pollution and climate change as the main indicators in its Trends in Sustainable Development document (United Nations, 2006) but these indicators do not cover all aspects of social and economic development and equity necessary to achieve sustainable development. It is clear that each initiative will require its own set of indicators developed by the stakeholders involved in the process. <br />
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Sustainable development is an extremely complicated concept, it is favoured by nearly everyone worldwide yet means different things to different people worldwide too. For a truly sustainable society to develop there needs to be institutional change at a variety of scales across the globe as following the status quo will not result in a sustainable society. The reason sustainable development is such an important political issue is due to the fact that for the institutional change to occur there needs to be a significant push from the worlds political leaders. While sustainable development cannot be everything to everyone as it currently seems to be proposed to be, largely due to the wide variety of interpretations if pursued correctly it definitely has the potential to help change the future of the world by not only protecting the biosphere but also alleviating the inequalities felt by people worldwide. <br />
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<u><b>References </b></u></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;">Adams, W. Jeanrenaud,S. (2008) <i>Transition to Sustainability: Towards a humane and diverse world</i> Gland:IUCN http:/data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2008-017.pdf </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Australian State of the Environment Committee (2001) <i>Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Beder, S. (1996) <i>The nature of sustainable development 2nd edition</i>. Scribe Publications. Newham. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Buhrs, T. Aplin, G. (1999) Pathways towards sustainability: The Australian approach. <i>Journal of Environmental Planning and Management</i>. Abingdon </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">DAC (1996) <i>Shaping the 21st Century: the contribution of development co-operation OECD</i>: Paris </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/23/35/2508761.pdf">http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/23/35/2508761.pdf</a></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">The Disables (2005) Damned if you do. <i>Nuthin for no one</i> (audio CD) Resist Records. Newtown </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Fien, J. Tilbury, D. (1998) <i>Education For substainability: Some questions for reflection</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Forum for the future- <i>Five Capital Models- A framework for Sustainability</i> http://www.forumforthefuture.org/files/the%20five%20capitals%20model.pdf </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Foster, J. (2001) Education as Sustainability. <i>Environmental Education Research Volume 7 Number 2</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Harding, R. (1998) <i>Environmental Decision Making: the roles of scientists, engineers and the public</i>. The federation press. Sydney </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal in Janse van Rensburg et. Al. 2002 <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>. Pretoria </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Hawken, P. Lovins, A. Lovins, L.H. <i>Natural Capitalism: Creating the next industrial revolution</i> (see excerpts </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.naturalcapitalism.org/">www.naturalcapitalism.org/</a>) </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Hicks, D. (1996) Envisioning the Future: The challenge for environmental educators. <i>Environmental Education Research, Volume 2, Number 1 </i></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Hopwood, B. Mellor, M. O’Brien, G. (2005) Sustainable Development: Mapping different approaches. <i>Sustainable Development, 13, 38-52 </i></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Kates, R. Parris, T. Leiserowitz, A. (2005) What is sustainable development Goals, Indicators, Values and Practice. <i>Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, Volume 47, Number 3 8-21</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Khoshla, A. <i>Choosing Technology for a healthier environment.</i> White paper, Principal voices </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.principalvoices.com/voices/ashok-khosla-white-paper.html">http://www.principalvoices.com/voices/ashok-khosla-white-paper.html</a></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Leiserowitz, A. Kates, R. Parris, T. (2004) <i>Sustainability Values, Attitudes and Behaviours: A review of multinational and global trends</i>. CID Working Paper No 113 Harvard university </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Nelson, R. Howden, M. Stafford Smith, M. (2008) Using adaptive governance to rethink the way science supports Australian drought policy. <i>Environmental Science and policy 2 588-601 </i></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Norton, B. (1991) <i>Toward unity among environmentalists</i>. Oxford University Press. New Haven </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2007) <i>Sustainability for survival: creating a climate for change</i> Inquiry into a sustainability charter House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage Canberra: House of Representatives Publishing Unit http://www.aph.gove.au/house/committee/environ/charter/report/fullreport.pdf </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Prothero, D. (2004) <i>Bringing fossils to life: an introduction to paleobiology 2nd ed</i>. McGraw Hill. Sydney. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Prugh,T. Assadourain, E. (2003) <i>What is Sustainability Anyway</i>? World Watch institute. http://worldwatch.org/system/files/ep165a.pdf </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Runnells, D. (2008) Our Common Inaction: Meeting the call for institutional change. <i>November/December 2008 issue of Environment Magazine.</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Sen, A. <i>Resisting insecurity and unfreedom</i>, white paper, Principal Voices. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.principalvoices.com/voices/amartya-sen-white-paper.html">http://www.principalvoices.com/voices/amartya-sen-white-paper.html</a></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Smith, J. Blake, J. & Davies, A. (2000) Putting Sustainability in Place: Sustainable communities projects in Huntingdonshire. <i>Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning 2 211-223</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Sneddon, C. Howarth, R. Norgaard, R. (2006) Sustainable development in a post Brundtland world.<i> Ecological Economics 57 253-268</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Tilbury, D. (2003) The World Summit, Sustainable Development and Environmental Education. <i>Australian Journal of Environmental Education, volume 19. </i></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (1987) <i>Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future</i> </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm">http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm</a></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (2006) <i>Trends in Sustainable Development</i>. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. New York </span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-12480484246007024332011-07-28T00:33:00.000-07:002011-07-28T00:33:49.072-07:00Climate Change and Sustainable Development<div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Two of the most topical political and environmental issues in the world today are Sustainable Development and Climate Change. A search of the internet gives approximately 30,200,000 results for Sustainable Development and 58,300,000 results for Climate Change. Comparative search data displayed in graph 1 shows that as a topic Climate Change is twice as searched for as Sustainable development (google, 2009). <br />
</span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Graph One (not included here)- Search Trend Data </i></span> </div><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
Climate change is responsible for some of the most destructive mass extinction events in the Earth’s history. The extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna between 11 and 20 thousand years ago has been linked to the transition of the planet from the last glacial maximum and the current interglacial period. An even more dramatic mass extinction linked to global climate change is the Permo-Triassic extinction event that resulted in the loss of 96% of marine species and 80% of the marine genera at the time and occurred relatively rapidly on a geological time scale, taking between 165,000 years and as little as 10,000 years with global climate change the most likely culprit (Prothero, 2004). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Anthropogenic climate change has become an increasingly important issue in the world since it was first recognized as a problem in 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (van der Gaast, 2008). The most important aspect of human induced climate change has been the changes caused by the emission of Greenhouse Gasses. Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Water Vapour are all found naturally in Earth’s atmosphere and provide a natural greenhouse effect (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). The amount of these gasses in the atmosphere has increased since the industrialisation of human society with their effect on the global environment evident since the mid twentieth century (Steffen, Crutzen & McNeill, 2007). Evidence that these gasses that are causing an advanced human induced greenhouse effect that is the responsible for much of the observed climate change in the world is unequivocal (Runnalls, 2008), global warming is already changing the world in ways that researchers can measure and quantify (UNEP, 2003). In recent years the has been a shift in debate away from whether or not the change is occurring and if human activities are to blame towards the best means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and how to adapt to the inevitable climate change (Wilkenfeld, Hamilton & Saddler, 2007). <br />
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When contrasted with the international debate on Climate Change, Sustainable development has been discussed internationally for much longer. The Brundtland report (United Nations, 1987) which has been widely recognised as giving the first and most widely used definition of sustainable development gave very little attention to greenhouse gasses and climate change specifically, especially when compared to the attention that Greenhouse Gas emissions and anthropogenic Climate Change has received since the Kyoto Protocol of 1998. Fossil fuels were mentioned in the sense that the use of them prevents future generations from the opportunity to use them, but the consequence of their use on the atmosphere is not covered by the report. <br />
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Despite this Climate Change has become increasingly linked into the Sustainable Development agenda and is recognised as a Sustainable Development issue (UN, 2008). Sustainable development has three main pillars that need to be equally balanced, environmental protection, economic development and social equity. Global climate change affects all three of these pillars. <br />
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Environmental consequences of global climate change are the most obvious and severe. Climate induced changes have been documented in 100 physical and 450 biological processes (UNEP, 2003). Climate Change will affect agriculture, biodiversity, coastlines, forests, settlements and water resources. Climate change influences and is influenced by agricultural systems (Commission on Sustainable Development, 2008). Agriculture will be affected both directly and indirectly in very complex ways, ranging from heat stress on livestock and decreases in rainfall, increases in severe weather events to exacerbating other natural resource management challenges like soil erosion and weed management (Department of Climate Change, 2008). <br />
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There is evidence that climate change has already had an affect on biodiversity in Australia. It affects distributions, abundance, life cycles and physiology of plants and animals. It has been linked to increases in coral bleaching, increased numbers of snow gums in alpine meadows and mangrove intrusions into freshwater swamps (Department of Climate Change, 2008). Despite this the greatest stress on wildlife is still the conversion or degradation of habitat and some species may prosper in a climate changed world (UNEP, 2003). <br />
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The coastal environment and dune system has naturally been able to adapt to changes in climate and sea level over long time periods. The forecasted change however is expected to be much faster than has been seen before and with development on the dune system preventing the landward movement of the coastal dune system means that climate change is a major coastal management problem (Department of Climate Change, 2008). Sea level rise is predicted to be between 18 and 59cm by 2099 and the shoreline retreat from this could be between 50-200 times the vertical sea level rise, dependant on coastal geomorphology (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2007). Sea level rise will also have a severe effect on coral reefs such as the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland (UNEP, 2003). <br />
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The effect of climate change on forests has the potential to be both positive and negative. Increases in Carbon Dioxide may be beneficial to forest growth, however potential decreases in water availability and nutrients could limit this growth. The speed of the climate change may also be faster than some species are able to adapt to, leading to changes in biodiversity (Department of Climate Change, 2008). <br />
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The physical effects of climate change on Australian settlements are centred around water supply to population centres, severe weather events, particularly on the coast where the majority of the Australian population lives and possible increases in the range of vector and food borne diseases. There will be considerable variation in the effect of climate change on settlements in Australia because of the different locations and sizes of settlements (Department of Climate Change, 2008). In addition water quality in coastal aquifers and estuaries is expected to decline as salt water finds its way in these locations due to sea level rise (UNEP, 2003). <br />
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The most severe physical effect of climate change on the Australian environment will be on Australia’s water resources, with any water shortage also potentially affecting food production (UNEP, 2003). Evaporation rates are likely to increase due to higher temperatures and with reduced stream flow across most of the country there will be a decrease in the national moisture balance and greater water stress (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2007). Australia is the driest inhabited continent water and is already a scarce and often over utilised resource. Added pressure due to climate change will have severe effects anywhere in Australian where this occurs (Department of Climate Change, 2008). <br />
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The economic effects of climate change are less obvious at a first glance, but are just as severe as the environmental effects. The effects of climate change will be felt on all industries from smokestack industries to investment banking and even sceptical industries and businesses need to be concerned about climate change, because so many people are concerned with it and this in itself has wide ranging implications. Even in countries like the United States who have been traditionally slow at regulating and controlling greenhouse gas emissions there is a slow shift in debate from whether climate change legislation is needed to when does it need to be enacted and in what form. Any company that can mitigate its exposure to climate change risks and take advantage of the new opportunities that arise will gain an advantage over their competitors despite scepticism over climate change (Lash & Wellington, 2007). The unexpectedly high growth of the world economy in the early twenty-first century and the energy requirements of that growth has put extra urgency on the need for action regarding climate change (Garnaut, 2008). <br />
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The economic impacts of climate change will occur throughout all countries, unevenly distributed across regions and within society and economies. While there will be some positive effects of climate change for the economy, negative effects will outweigh the benefits for the sectors providing essential goods and services to societies. Budgets in the public sector will be stretched and secondary effects on the economy from climate change will include higher prices, reduced incomes and potential job losses (CIER, 2007). <br />
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In businesses, environmental risk is generally managed as a problem of regulatory compliance, potential liability and pollutant release mitigation. For business the main distinctions to be made when considering environmental risk is not distinguishing between sectors but between companies in those sectors, as these strategies can create a competitive advantage for the company (Lash & Wellington, 2007). <br />
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With regards to the economy and climate change the obvious area of impact will be related to the regulation of greenhouse emissions by products or the processes required to make those products. There can also be a regulatory affect upon supply chains for a company whilst there may be opportunities created for new climate friendly products and technology (Lash & Wellington, 2007). <br />
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Greenhouse gasses arise from almost every conceivable economic activity due to the use of fossil fuel based energy or changes in land use (Kok & de Coninck, 2007). For companies producing significant amounts of greenhouse gasses there is the potential threat of lawsuits, similar to what has occurred in the tobacco, asbestos and pharmaceutical industries. While a less obvious cost can be the impact on a companies’ reputation, this is especially severe in industries where brand loyalty is an important attribute and asset. <br />
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Finally the physical effects of climate change and the associated extreme weather events will have an economic affect, both in physically affecting locations and industries but also through raised costs of insurance (Lash & Wellington, 2007). Developing countries are most vulnerable to natural disasters and their associated costs and a rise in disaster costs in the last decades can be explained with the explosive growth in human population (UNEP, 2003). <br />
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It is felt that the economic effect of climate change on the world can be significantly increased by inaction on this issue (CIER, 2007). For this issue delayed action is just as dangerous as inaction as there are potentially unknown thresholds that may be crossed. The dominant approach to climate change adaptation options is to calculate the cost and benefits of the adaptations incrementally and finding the optimum level at the point the benefits of adaption are equal to the costs of the adaption. It may be more appropriate however to view these adaptation costs as investments in natural, human and social capital aimed at maintaining or enhancing the services provided (CIER, 2007). <br />
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The least studied effect of global climate change on the pillars of sustainable development is the effect it will have on social equity. One of the major causes for the growth in greenhouse gas emissions is due to the growth in affluence of countries worldwide (Saikku, Rautiainen & Kauppi, 2008). It is neither justifiable nor feasible to remove environmental pressures by limiting the world economy to a steady state zero growth economy. By doing so we are trapping people in the developing world to a socially inequitable situation with the unjust distribution of resources and no hope of improving the quality of their lives or their material standards of living (Garnaut, 2008 and Hattingh, 2002). Social equity concerns in developed countries often revolve around the effect of emission reduction targets and their effect on vulnerable citizens and groups, such as lower income citizens and small business. These groups are seen as being vulnerable if National governments are penalised for missing targets or need to raise taxes to avoid penalties (DEFRA, 2007). <br />
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Climate change can also be seen as an international human rights issue, which closely aligns it with the social equity pillar of sustainable development. As a human rights issue climate change is most often linked with small island states, which are almost entirely developing countries and the fact that climate change will have severe effects on the populations of these islands. The human rights of these environmentally displaced people are the first to be severely affected on a mass scale by climate change but it will eventually impact on the human rights of almost the entire population of the planet to varying degrees (Knox, 2008). <br />
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All estimates are that sea levels will rise due to climate change, which will have a severe effect on low lying islands like the Maldives. Rising waters will increase sea and storm surges, affecting flooding risk and severity. These rising waters will also affect peoples’ rights to life, property, health and adequate standards of living. The size of these states also means that they are unable to protect their population from climate change as if they stopped producing greenhouse gasses entirely it would have no discernable impact on global warming. In the face of this human rights law requires states to cooperate with each other to address climate change, both to reduce greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere but also to assist states affected by changes that cannot be avoided and will affect the rights of their population (Knox, 2008). <br />
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Human health will be directly affected by new patterns of extreme weather events, cold snaps, heat waves, floods, droughts, local pollution and allergens. Indirect changes to infectious disease, freshwater supply, food production, population movement and economic activities will also affect human health. Climate change will affect air quality and combined with increased frequency and intensity of heat waves will have an especially strong effect on the elderly and urban poor (UNEP, 2003). <br />
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There are many obstacles to addressing climate change effectively in the world. The main obstacle is that climate change will not affect all industries equally and this means that the potential losers will fight to retain their advantages and privileges. Some companies even seek to profit from ineffective or counter productive solutions. Misinformation spread both deliberately and accidentally can affect public opinion and even government policy (Wilkenfeld, Hamilton & Saddler, 2007). <br />
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Programs like the Clean Development Mechanism face problems in achieving a distribution worldwide. The design of programs like this as voluntary market based mechanisms means that the investment activities tends to concentrate where opportunities are high and the cost of transactions and the risk is low. These financial factors can limit project development and implementation in Less Developed Countries (Sieghart, 2008). <br />
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The market based solutions prioritised by organisations like the World Bank as methods for dealing with problems of climate change in developing countries have been criticised as the market exacts no penalty from the producers of the greenhouse gasses transforming the climate. This means that the projects do nothing to keep pollution in check as economies grow. These flexible mechanisms can be seen by developing countries as ways for the developed world to avoid or delay reducing the greenhouse gas emissions (Shamsuddoha & Chowdhury, 2008). <br />
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Barriers to changes in individuals’ behaviours can also be seen as obstacles to effective action on climate change. Cost both monetary and time, confusion and lack of information and the difficulty of changing other members of their households behaviour are all seen as barriers to beneficial behaviour change, despite an eagerness for people to do their bit (DEFRA, 2007). Addressing the underlying social causes of problems such as motor vehicle use in developed countries is difficult, technological fixes often just shift the problem elsewhere. Powerful interest groups often resist attempts to change behaviour and combined with the convenience of personal car use limiting the use of motor vehicles is a very difficult change to bring about (Beder, 1996). <br />
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Attempts by countries to determine responsibility for climate change are also an obstacle. A variety of methods can be tried most often pitting the developed world or Annex 1 countries against the developing world. A method of allocating reductions of greenhouse emissions based on cumulative historical emissions was proposed but not accepted at the Kyoto protocol negotiations, many developing countries favoured this method but developed countries that would share the burden of this proposal understandably were not in favour (Muller, Hohne & Ellermann, 2007). These blame shifting debates clearly affect the ability of the world to address climate change effectively. <br />
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The opportunities that climate change presents for sustainability are limited when compared to the obstacles and challenges. One opportunity in tropical regions is the using tropical forests as carbon sinks to help combat both climate change and deforestation (Canadell & Raupach, 2008). Other ways of combating climate change that connect to other policies beneficial to climate change include through health and air quality policies, poverty reduction, agricultural production and risk prevention (Kok & de Coninck, 2007). Opportunities may also arise with new climate friendly industries and products or by an individual company gaining a competitive advantage by adopting climate sensitive policies (Lash & Wellington, 2007). <br />
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The Kyoto protocol was the first concrete global agreement to combat climate change in 1997. 9 years later it came into force when enough countries ratified it, with developing countries being exempted from commitments to limit emission reduction. Since then there have been negotiations for a post Kyoto protocol but the Kyoto protocol is still currently the most important agreement relating to climate change worldwide. Without a supranational government able to decide on commitments, policies and enforcement regimes global climate policy making is complex. It is a long term global problem with no single sector responsible and seen as a difficult and less urgent problem by many politicians (van der Gaast, 2008). Gasses listed in the protocol as Greenhouse gasses were Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons and Sulphur hexafluoride with the main source categories listed as energy, industrial processes, agriculture, waste and solvent and other product use (United Nations, 1998). <br />
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The successes and failures of the Kyoto protocol have received much scrutiny. Greenhouse Gas emissions from Annex 1 countries decreased, but this was largely due to lower emissions from economies in transition. Some countries such as Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia managed to make large reductions of up to nearly 80% of their emissions; however other countries such as Monaco, Finland and Canada had their emissions increase by up to nearly 60% in the same time frame (United Nations, 2006). Data has shown however that the 4.7% decrease over all has been reduced as Annex 1 country emissions have grown by 2.3% since the year 2000 (van der Gaast, 2008). Transport has the fastest growing level of emissions of any sector with North American and Developing Asia increasing their emissions rapidly. However the growth emissions in the emerging economies of Asia were slower than their economic growth (United Nations, 2006). The mixed results of this agreement therefore show that new action is needed to significantly address climate change and its effect on sustainable development. <br />
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There are many opinions on what needs to occur next in the international debate on climate change and sustainable development. Most agree that policies need to include adaptation to changes and not just attempts to mitigate the effects of greenhouse gasses. In the transition to sustainability Adams and Jeanrenaud (2008) feel that the first thing that needs to be done is to decarbonise the world economy. Delaying action on climate change is thought to only increase the cost and national policies for immediate action to mitigate emissions combined with efforts to adapt to those impacts that will be unavoidable is the only way to reduce the cost of climate change significantly (CIER, 2007). <br />
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In Australia both short term and long term strategies are needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Actions that will lock in high levels of emissions for a long term, such as new coal fired power stations and car dependant infrastructure need to be reduced or ceased entirely. A permit system with the emphasis on emission reduction and not just offsets also needs to be put into place along with emission standards for power and efficiency standards for appliances and motor vehicles is also required for Australia to significantly reduce its’ greenhouse gas emissions (Wilkenfeld, Hamilton & Saddler, 2007). <br />
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Due to the long lead time needed to develop new technology, better use of existing technology will be crucial with the short term to achieve 2020 emission targets. But even so radical improvements in intensity of use and emission intensity will be required for the ambitious reduction targets like those set by the European Union, the chances of these targets being met are not good currently given a declining trend is yet to begin. For targets to be met the reduction in emissions would need to be between 1.9 and 2.6 times faster than the years 1993 to 2004 (Saikku, Rautiainen & Kauppi, 2007). <br />
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In the United States of American mandatory approaches to reduce emissions from major sectors are seen as important, along with flexible approaches to establishing a price signal for carbon with a cap and trade system and finally approaches that create incentives to encourage actions by other countries. These actions are seen as needing to be enacted by decision makers sooner rather than later. A carbon dioxide level of around 450 ppm is needed to prevent drastic climate change and this is the proposed target of both the European Union and United States (USCAP, Date unknown, van der Gaast, 2008). <br />
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As it is a global issue climate change needs to be tackled at a global level too. The Commission on Sustainable Development has singled out Climate Change as the most pressing issue of our generation with urgent action needed now and this entails cooperation beyond short term political manoeuvring (CSD, 2007). International agreements on atmospheric pollution have a precedent of being highly effective, concerted global action guided by multilateral agreements have been able to effectively phase out CFCs (United Nations, 2006) so there is no reason to believe that the same would not be possible for greenhouse gas emissions if there was significant political will to make the necessary decisions. One of the most important requirements for an effective climate change action that is connected to this is participation of the United States, for history shows us that ideas on a global scale like this do not move without leadership from the United States (Runnalls, 2008). <br />
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Clearly climate change is an issue that receives huge amounts of attention worldwide due to the global effect it will have. It is connected intimately to sustainable development due to the effect it will have environmentally, economically and socially and it is often not even recognised as a aspect of sustainable development but an entirely separate problem. Very limited progress has been made in addressing climate change as an issue with only minor reductions to greenhouse emissions made since the Kyoto protocol and far more drastic measures are needed to prevent large scale climate change. For these measures to occur there needs to be a recognition of how severe this issue is and long term strategies developed on a global and national scale to reduce and mitigate emissions and also to adapt to the unavoidable consequences. These measures will need to be different for developing and developed countries but will need to be made by all nations on Earth before unalterable changes take place. <br />
</span><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;">“When our rivers run dry and our crops cease to grow </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">When our summers grow longer and our winters won’t snow </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">From the banks of the ocean and the ice in the hills </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">To the fight in the desert where progress stands still </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">When the air that we breathe becomes air that we choke </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">When the Marsh fever spreads from the swamps to our homes </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">This is our chance to set things straight </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">To bend and break rules back into place.” </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">(Rise Against, 2008) </span></i></div><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="font-size: small;">References</span></u></b><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Adams, W. Jeanrenaud,S. (2008) <i>Transition to Sustainability: Towards a humane and diverse world</i> Gland:IUCN http:/data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2008-017.pdf (accessed May 2009) </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) <i>Climate Change Adaptation Actions for Local Government</i>. Report by SMED Australia to the Australian Greenhouse Office. Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Canberra. Australia. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Australian State of the Environment Committee (2001) <i>Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Beder, S. (1996) <i>The nature of sustainable development 2nd edition</i>. Scribe Publications. Newham. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Canadell, J.G. & Raupach, M.R. (2008) Managing Forests for Climate Change Mitigation.<i> Science. Vol 320</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">CIER Center for Integrative Environmental Research (2007) <i>The US Economic Impacts of Climate Change and the Costs of Inaction</i>. University of Maryland. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">CSD. Commission on Sustainable Development (2007) <i>Economic and Social Council. Major groups’ Priorities for Action in energy for sustainable development, industrial development, air pollution/atmosphere and climate change</i>. Commission on Sustainable Development Sixteenth Session </span> </div><div style="text-align: left;"><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">CSD. Commission on Sustainable Development (2008) <i>Economic and Social Council. Discussion papers submitted by major groups</i>. Commission on Sustainable Development Sixteenth Session. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">DCC. Department of Climate Change (2008) </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.climatechange.gov.au/impacts/nccap/index.html">http://www.climatechange.gov.au/impacts/nccap/index.html</a> accessed May 2009. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">DEFRA. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2007) <i>Climate Change Citizens’ Summit End of Day Report</i>. Citizen’s Summit on Climate Change. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Garnaut, R. (2008) Garnaut Climate Change Review: Interim Report to the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments of Australia Executive Summary. <i>Garnaut Climate Change Review</i>. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Google Search Data, (2009)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&q=sustainable+development&btnG=Google+Search&meta=&aq=f&oq">http://www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&q=sustainable+development&btnG=Google+Search&meta=&aq=f&oq</a>= accessed May 2009 </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">(<a href="http://www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&safe=off&q=climate+change&btnG=Search&meta">http://www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&safe=off&q=climate+change&btnG=Search&meta</a>= accessed May 2009 </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.google.com/trends?q=sustainable+development%2C+climate+change&ctab=0&geo=all&geor=all&date=all&sort=0">http://www.google.com/trends?q=sustainable+development%2C+climate+change&ctab=0&geo=all&geor=all&date=all&sort=0</a> accessed May 2009 </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal in Janse van Rensburg et. Al. 2002 <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>. Pretoria </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Knox, J.H. (2008) <i>Climate Change as a Global Threat to Human Rights. UN Consultation on the Relationship between Climate Change and Human Rights</i>. Geneva. Switzerland </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Kok, M.T.J. & de Coninck, H.C. (2007) Widening the scope of policies to address climate change: directions for mainstreaming. <i>Environmental Science & Policy 10. 587-599 </i></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Lash, J. & Wellington, F. (2007) Competitive Advantage on a Warming Planet. <i>Harvard Business Review. March 2007</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Muller, B., Hohne, N. & Ellermann, C. (2007) <i>Differentiating (Historic) Responsibilities for Climate Change: Summary Report</i>. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Prothero, D. (2004) <i>Bringing fossils to life: an introduction to paleobiology 2nd ed.</i> McGraw Hill. Sydney. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Rise Against (2008) Collapse (Post-Amerika). <i>Appeal to Reason</i> (audio CD) DGC Records. California. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Runnells, D. (2008) Our Common Inaction: Meeting the call for institutional change. <i>November/December 2008 issue of Environment Magazine</i>. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Saikku, L., Rautiainen, A. & Kauppi, P.E. (2008) The sustainability challenge of meeting carbon dioxide targets in Europe by 2020. <i>Energy Policy 36. 730-742</i> </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Shamsuddoha, Md. & Chowdhury, RK. (2008) <i>Architecture of the World Bank Climate Investment Funds: again a top down approach</i>. Equity & Justice Working Group. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Sieghart, L.C. (2008) <i>Towards an Effective Implementation of the CDM in the Middle East and North Africa Region- A Perspective from Yemen</i>. CIM. Yemen. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">Steffen, W., Crutzen, P.J. & McNeill, J.R. (2007) The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. <i>Ambio Vol. 36 No. 8</i>. </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (1987) <i>Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future</i> </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm">http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm</a></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (1998) <i>Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</i>. United Nations </span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (2006) <i>Trends in Sustainable Development. Department of Economic and Social Affairs</i>. New York </span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">United Nations (2008) Addressing Climate Change: The United Nations and the World at Work. <i>Background Paper. General Assembly Thematic Debate, 11 and 12 Feb 2008</i>. </span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">UNEP (2003) <i>How will global warming affect my world? A simplified guide to the IPCC’s “Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</i>. United Nations Environment Programme. France. </span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">USCAP. United States Climate Action Partnership. (undated) <i>A Call for Action. Consensus Principles and Recommendations from the US Climate Action Partnership</i>: A Business and NGO Partnership. </span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Van der Gaast, W. (2008) <i>The Challenging Task of Negotiating a Climate Protocol. Foundation Joint Implementation Network</i>. Energy Delta Convention. The Netherlands </span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Wilkenfeld, G., Hamilton, C. & Saddler, H. (2007) ‘<i>Clean Coal’ and other greenhouse myths</i>. Research Paper No. 49. The Australia Institute Ltd </span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-26534343674971984872011-07-28T00:18:00.000-07:002011-07-28T00:18:02.896-07:00Sustainability Change Management Plan- Woolworths Ltd<div style="text-align: justify;"><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Introduction </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The purpose of this report is to assess the organisational sustainability characteristics of Woolworths Limited. Both human and environmental sustainability characteristics will be assessed using the Sustainability Phase Model. The current performance of Woolworth Ltd will be assessed and recommendations for progression further through this model will be made. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">What is Sustainability? </span></b></u></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sustainability and Sustainable Development is a concept in the world that achieves nearly universal approval (Hattingh, 2002), however it is also a concept that has no universal definition. The wider ranging debate and discourse over what sustainability and sustainable development means however shows that there is much common ground in between the large number of definitions being produced. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Most definitions expand on the initial definition produced by the United Nations (1987) in the Brundtland Report. This definition attempts to balance the needs of the current generations with those of the future generations. Another common feature of many of these definitions is balancing environmental, social and economic elements, these three elements often being referred to as the “three pillars” of sustainability (Leiserowitz, Kates & Parris, 2004). A broad definition of sustainable development would be balancing these three pillars both between each other and between generations, with most differences in definition being in the specifics of this balance rather than this core of the definition. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Organisational Sustainability </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Business and Industry has been recognised as a group with a major role to play in the world’s transition towards sustainability (United Nations, 2007). Organisational Sustainability is the attempt by organisations (primarily business organisations) to make the organisation more sustainable. How individual organisations view organisational sustainability will change depending on the outlook of the organisation, the industry it is in, or the country the organisation is based in. Organisational sustainability policies and initiatives can have a variety of different names, be either formally or informally recognised and have varying levels of acceptance. In Australia it is quite common for Corporate Social Responsibility policies to be the main driving policy for organisational sustainability. Corporate Social Responsibility can be driven by a range of factors and the heightened focus on CSR has not always been voluntary (Porter & Kramer, 2006) however CSR is limited in its ability to influence total sustainability due to the focus it holds on the “social” pillar of sustainable development. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Phase Model </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The phase model is an abstract tool designed originally to provide the ability to compare organisations behaviour relevant to environmental and social sustainability (Dunphy, Griffiths & Benn, 2007). The assumption being that the third pillar of sustainable development, economic development, is represented by the business remaining profitable and is a concern of all corporations regardless of their position in the phase model. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There are 6 phases in the phase model (Dunphy, Griffiths & Benn, 2007); </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Rejection </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Characterised by an attitude that all resources exist to be exploited for economic gain. </span></span></li>
</ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Non-Responsiveness </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Characterised by a lack of awareness focused on business as usual and creating and maintaining a compliant workforce </span></span></li>
</ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Compliance </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This phase focuses on reducing the risk of not meeting minimum standards and avoiding legal or community backlash. </span></span></li>
</ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Efficiency </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This is the beginning of the process of incorporating sustainability into the core of the business. At this phase human resource and environmental policies are used to reduce costs and increase efficiency. </span></span></li>
</ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Strategic Proactivity </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">By making sustainability an important part of the corporation’s business strategy. In this phase sustainability is seen as potentially providing the corporation a strategic advantage and being part of the firms maximisation of long term profitability. </span></span></li>
</ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Sustaining Corporation </span></span></li>
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The final phase is one where sustainability is internalised in the ideology of the organisation where people and the environment are seen as valuable for their own sake. </span></span></li>
</ul></ul><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited is the world’s 26th largest retailer, with the major brands of the corporation in Australia Woolworths, Safeway, Caltex/Woolworths Petrol, Dick Smith Electronics, Powerhouse, Tandy, BWS, Dan Murphy’s and Big W. Woolworths Ltd is Australia’s largest private employer and one of Australia’s largest publicly listed companies (Woolworths Limited, 2008a). Over 188,000 people work for Woolworths Limited in Australasia, over 110,000 of these employees found in the supermarket division with an approximately even spread of full-time, part-time and casual employees (Woolworths Limited, 2010a). Approximately 50,000 of Woolworths Limited employees are located in rural or regional areas of Australia (Woolworths Limited, 2008a). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Expanding the reach, Woolworths Limited has over 3000 separate suppliers of different sizes with 100% of the fresh meat and 95% of the fresh fruit and vegetables in the supermarkets being sourced from Australian producers. Out of the total produced in Australia (including produced for export) Woolworths Limited sells 12% of the Fresh Fruit and Vegetables, 15% of the lamb and 6% of the beef (Woolworths Limited, 2008a, Woolworths Limited 2008b, Woolworths Limited, 2010a). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sustainability at Woolworths </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The size of this organisation, combined with the extended reach it has through suppliers, customers and employees gives Woolworths Limited a potentially massive role it could play in both the corporate and wider sustainability debate in Australia. This is both direct influence on internal operations such as staffing and private label sourcing and indirect influence on both suppliers and customers. This is a field that as yet Woolworths Limited has not taken a leading role in, especially given the organisations size and potential influence. There is a division between Corporate Responsibility reporting and the Woolworths Limited Annual Report, with extremely limited reference to the corporate responsibility reports or the Sustainability Strategy goals, especially when compared to the financial details given in the Annual Report (Woolworths Limited, 2010b). This division would indicate that organisational sustainability is still seen as a secondary pursuit by the organisation. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Independence assurance statements can be found in all the Corporate Responsibility Reports for the organisation (Woolworths Limited, 2010a), however whilst annual Corporate Responsibility Reporting is now conducted by the organisation the report focuses mainly on Social aspects of sustainability with the financial benefit of this strategy being highlighted. There is a lesser focus on environmental issues with the majority of issues limited to the direct impact of the stores. Division between the various environmental, social and economic aspects of Organisational Sustainability also limits the ability of the organisation to recognise the interconnected nature of many of the issues. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Reluctance by Woolworths Limited to engage with suppliers over environmental or social issues also means the organisation is not fulfilling the potential it has to be a leader for sustainability in Australia. Competition between the leading supermarkets in Australia often results in the use of the strategy of loss leading to attract customers with the price of milk becoming subject to a senate inquiry in 2011. Loss leading can have a severely negative effect on producers and suppliers. Loss leading was also used on cartons of beer in 2011 where the supplier Fosters (itself a major Australian corporation) pulled their stock from the marketplace in what was described as a risky move so they could avoid the negative effect of the major Australian supermarkets using their product as a loss leader (Ferguson, 2011 and Ferguson & Rosenberg, 2011). The ability of Woolworths Limited to conduct large scale loss leading strategies and the inability of suppliers to resist this (even other large corporations) clearly shows the influence that Woolworths Limited can have on its suppliers. Loss leading also shows the willingness of Woolworths Limited to influence its supply chain for financial goals. Additionally using products that can be linked to social problems such as alcohol displays a willingness to sacrifice long term social goals for shorter term financial gain. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited and the Phase Model </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">An assessment of Woolworths Limited would place the organisation at a compliance level with regards to both Human and Ecological sustainability according to the phase model. This means that financial and technological factors still dominate business strategies despite senior management attempting to comply with all environmental laws and viewing the organisation as a decent employer (Dunphy, Griffiths & Benn, 2007). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">For Woolworths Limited Human Sustainability is firmly within the compliance phase with emphasis firmly on complying with legal requirements relating to industrial relations, safety and workplace standards (Dunphy, Griffiths & Benn, 2007). Whilst training and other human resource functions occur there is little evidence of integration between these programs and many of the programs focus on small aspects of the total Woolworths Limited workforce (Woolworths Limited, 2010a). Evidence of community concerns only being addressed when there is a large amount of negative publicity can be seen in the slow response made by the corporation to issues such as palm oil (Woolworths Limited 2010c), and the limited nature of that response given the power Woolworths limited has over suppliers or the response to community outcry over the relationship between Woolworths Limited and Asia Pulp and Paper (Hance, 2008). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited is in the compliance phase regarding Ecological Sustainability too, however there are elements of the efficiency phase to be found in some of the policies by the organisation. Financial and technological factors dominate business strategies however there are elements of poor environmental practice being seen as an avoidable cost, especially with regards to completely internal environmental issues. Energy emissions are being reduced with the pay off for the company being seen as reduced energy costs rather than intrinsic environmental benefits. Reductions in water usage where they can be measured are also valued for cost savings rather than intrinsic reasons (Woolworths Limited 2010a). Evidence of environmental issues being ignored is not seen as generating strong community action or generating avoidable costs can be shown by the reluctance of Woolworths Limited to engage suppliers over environmental issues. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Overall there is little integration between Human Resource and Environmental functions of the organisation. The majority of both Human and Ecological sustainability initiatives of the organisation exist for financial benefit or to maintain a “good citizen” image. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Progressing through the Phase Model </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited can be located in the third (compliance) phase of the Phase Model for issues relating to Human Sustainability and much of the issues relating to Ecological Sustainability, this gives it great potential to make large improvements in corporate sustainability. For the corporation to advance to the efficiency phase there needs to be a shift in the upper levels of the corporation that there are significant advantages to be gained by proactively instituting sustainability practices, advantages that go beyond minimising risk and meeting minimum community demands. Profits involving a social purpose represent a higher form of capitalism (Porter & Kramer, 2011) and this view could be taken up by Woolworths Limited to great benefit of both the organisation and Australian society as a whole, given the size and market share of the corporation. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The size of Woolworths Limited both in staff numbers and the geographical spread of the organisation means that a change program needs to be something supported and directed by higher level management. Without significant support and direction from upper management there will be difficulties in spreading change of any form in between the 3000 stores in the corporation. There are views that for truly successful corporate social responsibility policies top level management needs to see social responsibility as a strategic choice and this strategic view is most likely to come from a transformational leadership perspective (Waldman & Siegal, 2008). This is important to note because the most common corporate response to CSR is not strategic, or even operational, it has in fact been cosmetic with public relations, media campaigns and glossy separate CSR reports (Porter & Kramer, 2006), similar to those produced by Woolworths Limited. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This would indicate that change for greater organisational sustainability is likely to need to come from the upper level of Woolworths Limited management if it is to be successful and spread throughout the entire organisation. The construction of new “green stores” indicates there is limited support from upper level management already, but more can be done. A correlation has been shown between the level of integration of CSR into the business and the benefits gained from it (Legendre, 2008) which means greater integration of CSR principles into the Woolworths Limited business would see greater benefits for the organisation. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This would all indicate that the change management approach that would potentially have the best results for Woolworths Limited would be for upper level management to take on a “Coach” perspective. A coaching image the change manager is assumed to have the ability to intentionally shape the organisations capabilities in particular ways. However unlike the dictating approach of the director perspective the coach perspective relies on building the right set of values, skills and drills that organisation members can then utilise to achieve the desired outcome (Palmer, et al., 2009). A coaching perspective from Upper management at Woolworths Limited would enable greater integration of CSR into the business strategy with the ever increasing benefits that this entails. It would also begin to influence the large staff of the organisation to more sustainable practices both at work and in society. A more integrated CSR policy would also help Woolworths Limited spread organisational sustainability from beyond it’s already considerably sized organisation to the wider supply chain it has, enabling the organisation to become a leading force for sustainability in Australia. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conclusion </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Currently Woolworths Limited can be found primarily in the compliance phase of the Phase model of Organisational Sustainability, however the integration of CSR principles into the business strategy provides great potential for Woolworths Limited to progress further through this model. Greater integration of CSR principles alongside a coaching image of change management would give this organisation the potential to not only become a leader in Organisational Sustainability, but to become a leading force for sustainability in the greater Australian Society. This is due to the size and spread of the organisation, the large widespread staff, the large supply network and the close contact the organisation has with the majority of Australian society. Greater integration of CSR principles will provide the business with a number of benefits and the power the organisation has to influence the supply chain it has means greater wide ranging beneficial changes could occur with sufficient will. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Dunphy, D., Griffiths, A. & Benn, S. (2007) <i>Organisational Change for Corporate Sustainability, 2nd Ed.</i> Routledge, London </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Ferguson, A. (2011) Beer wars as Foster’s takes on chains to stop sale of $28 cases, <i>The Sydney Morning Herald, March 23rd page 1</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Ferguson, A & Rosenberg, J. (2011) Grocery giants to get grilling over grog wars, <i>The Sydney Morning Herald: Business Day, March 24th page 3</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hance, J. (2008) <i>Australia’s Woolworths greenwashes rainforest destruction in Indonesia allege activists</i>, Mongabay.com </span><a href="http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0708-Hance_woolworths.html" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0708-Hance_woolworths.html</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed June 2011 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal, in Van Rensburg, J, et. al. 2002 <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>, Pretoria </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Leiserowitz, A., Kates, R. & Parris, T. (2004) <i>Sustainability Values, Attitudes and Behaviours: A review of multinational and global trends</i>. CID Working Paper No. 113 Harvard University </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Legendre, A. (2008) <i>Drivers for Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainable Practice in Australia</i>, Green Capital, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Palmer, I., Dunford, R. & Akin, G. (2009) <i>Managing Organisational Change- A multiple Perspectives Approach, 2nd ed</i>, McGraw-Hill, New York </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Porter, M. & Kramer, m. (2006) Strategy and Society: The Link Between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility, <i>Harvard Business Review, 84 (12)</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (1987) <i>Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future</i> found at </span><a href="http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm%20last%20accessed%20June%202011" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm last accessed June 2011</a></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (2007) Economic and Social Council: Commission on Sustainable Development 15th Session, <i>Major Groups’ Priorities for Action in Energy for Sustainable Development</i>, Industrial Development, Air Pollution/Atmosphere and Climate Change. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Waldman, D. & Siegel, D. (2008) Defining the Socially Responsible Leader, <i>The Leadership Quarterly 19</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited (2008a) <i>Doing the right thing: Sustainability Strategy 2007-2015</i>, Woolworths Limited, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited (2008b) <i>The Facts about Grocery Retailing at Woolworths</i>, Woolworth Limited, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited (2010a) <i>Corporate Responsibility Report 2010</i>, Woolworths Limited, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited (2010b) <i>Woolworths Limited Annual Report 2010</i>, Woolworths Limited, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Woolworths Limited (2010c) <i>Sustainable Palm Oil Action Plan</i>, Woolworths Limited, Sydney, found at </span><a href="http://www.woolworths.com.au/wps/wcm/connect/website/woolworths/about-us/woolworths-news/news-content/palmoilactionplan" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.woolworths.com.au/wps/wcm/connect/website/woolworths/about-us/woolworths-news/news-content/palmoilactionplan</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed March 2011 </span></span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-74134602141673807372011-07-28T00:08:00.000-07:002011-07-28T00:08:43.413-07:00Sustainable Water Plan- Sydney Region<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></u></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><u><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Sustainable Development of Water Resources</span></b></u></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;"> Fresh water is a matter of life or death in the world. It is a resource essential for life on Earth and required for virtually all environmental processes. Worldwide it is used by humans for consumption, food production, in industrial processes, in energy production and a variety of recreational activities in additional to the natural environment’s requirements (Aplin et.al., 1999). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Water has been a critical factor in development of Australia and whilst it is scarce in many parts of Australia it is in ever increasing demand. Past and current mismanagement has put even greater stress on this resource in many parts of Australia (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001).The demand and intensity of debate about water resources rises and falls with not only economic and social pressures but in line with natural fluctuations such as drought (Young, 2000), indeed water is never far from the public consciousness in Australia; </span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">“Think we’re blessed that we live in Australia </span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">But at the moment we don’t have enough water </span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">And when we do it contains giardia” </span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">(Chris Duke and the Royals, 2006) </span></i></div><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Water has become an issue of increasing importance to almost unprecedented levels at all levels of government in Australia in recent years both due to drought and other political factors (Dovers, 2008). In both 2006 and 2009 water was seen as the environmental issue of most concern to residents of New South Wales. Concern for water fell between 2006 and 2009 with the breaking of the drought, showing the change in concern over water resources is related to environmental, economic and social pressures but even with this drop it remained clearly the issue of most concern (Department of Environment Climate Change and Water, 2010b). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">As a concept sustainable development is one of near universal approval with the precepts of sustainability and sustainable development virtually unchallenged by people (Hattingh, 2002 and Gunder & Hillier, 2009). Despite this, or indeed perhaps due to this approval there is a looseness of concept of sustainability and sustainable development that has resulted in almost all of the stakeholders in the sustainable development process, whom is virtually every person and organisation in the world forming their own definition of what exactly sustainability and sustainable development means. The most common definition used is that of the Brundtland report, that is; </span><br />
<i><br />
</i><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">“Sustainable Development is Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (United Nations, 1987) </span></i></div><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">This is a rather open and subjective definition of sustainable development and has resulted in the vast majority of definitions of sustainable development to be broken into two broad camps, that of strong sustainability and weak sustainability. These divisions are centred mainly on how the definition balances the interaction between the 3 pillars of Sustainable Development, the environmental aspect, the social aspect and the economic aspect. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The problem in defining sustainable development in a context of urban water supply has been noted as a complicated one (Syme, 2008). As a resource water is intimately linked to these three aspects (see table 1). It is vital for environmental health and this has recently been recognised with many heavily irrigated river systems being required to maintain an environmental flow to maintain the health of the natural environment in the river’s catchment. Socially water is an important resource as it is essential for human health. Quality of life will drop dramatically for people without access to adequate amounts of safe water; this is for their own consumption and for the production of food. Additionally water is used by a number of industries and for recreational purposes. The importance of water as a valuable resource gives it a significant economic value. The extraction and treatment of water can be a costly process, alongside the treatment and disposal of water after it has been used. Ultimately it is the consumers and general public who bear these financial costs. However it is important to not cost water so heavily that people are unable access adequate amounts of water as this can not only affect the quality of life but possibly health also.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.5pt;" width="154"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Aspect of Sustainability</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.5pt;" width="154"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Environmental</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.55pt;" width="154"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Social</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.55pt;" width="154"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Economic</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.5pt;" width="154"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">How Does Water Relate</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.5pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Water is required for virtually all environmental processes.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A lack of water in the natural environment can have severe impacts on habitat and species diversity.</span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.55pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Water is essential for human health and survival, both as a direct consumable and for the production of food.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Water is also used in human industrial processes and for a multitude of recreational activities.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A lack of convenient and safe water supply can have a severe effect on the quality of life for the people affected.</span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 115.55pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Water is an extremely valuable resource, especially in Australia.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The collection and treatment of water is an expensive process. These costs are carried by both government and private industry however it is eventually the consumers and general public whom are forced to bear these costs.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Additionally a lack of water naturally due to seasonal variations can have severe economic effects on food production and other industries.</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Table 1- Water and the 3 Pillars of Sustainable Development</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">When the above factors are combined it becomes apparent that any plan for the sustainable management of water resources needs to carefully balance the need for water between three aspects of sustainable development. This means that a sustainable water management plan needs to be able to balance the supply of water for people’s social and economic needs with the need of that water in the natural environment. Additionally the economic cost of water needs to be kept as reasonable as possible so as to not deny the socio-economically disadvantaged access to the water they need for health and quality of life. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Water in the Sydney Region </span></span></b><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">As the Sydney region encompasses many local government areas the management of water in the Sydney region is considered a responsibility of the New South Wales State Government. Management of these water resources is the Sydney Water Corporation. For this reason the Sustainable Water Plan for Sydney will cover the same area of operations as Sydney Water. Sydney water provides water, waste water services and limited stormwater services to over 4 million people in the Sydney Basin, The Blue Mountains and the Illawarra (see figure 1). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The current system of water supply in Sydney is a very one way system where water is collected in dams, treated and pumped to the consumer where it is used. The waste water is then removed sent to a treatment plant and then released, with the majority of this water being released into the ocean. The major problem with this system is the linear nature as this doesn’t resemble the natural cyclical water cycle process. The population of Sydney is also increasing, with the supply of water remaining at the same level, so far increases in population haven’t greatly increased the demand for water do to increases in water use efficiency. It is therefore hoped that further increases to water use efficiency will help mitigate the increase on demand from future increases in population. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Figure 1 (not included here)- Area of Operations for Sydney Water (Sydney Water, 2010) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">A Sustainable Water Plan for Sydney </span></span></b> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Water is also one of the issues that New South Wales residents feel is going to increase in importance in the next decade (Department of Environment Climate Change and Water, 2010a). If this is the case the planning for this needs to occur now, rather than in 10 years time and that is where the Sustainable Water Plan for Sydney comes in. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">A sustainable water plan for Sydney is one that is provides adequate supplies of safe water to as much of the population of the city at a reasonable economic cost, whilst having as little impact on the environment as possible. These three pillars can be seen in the three principle objectives of Sydney water, to protect public health, to protect the environment and maintain a successful business (Sydney Water, 2010). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The water supply for Sydney can vary dramatically (as shown in figure 2).and this means that supplies of water that are not rainfall reliant would be of use in Sydney. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Figure 2 (not included here)- Water Supply and Storage in Sydney (Sydney Catchment Authority, 2010) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There are two main approaches to water management and ensuring the supply of water to the population. The two approaches are demand management and supply management. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Demand management is increasing the efficiency of water use by consumers at the consumptive end. Historically demand management in Sydney has been a relatively successful process with the Sydney region using similar amounts of water now (in 2010) as it did in the 1970s despite the greater population. This shows that an expanding population does not necessarily require greater water supply if increases to efficiency can be continued (Sydney Water, 2010). Currently the majority of Sydney water’s demand management occurs through the Water 4 Life initiative. Historically demand management has been a voluntary process for residents due to the legal and ethical issues of enforcing how people use water in their homes; however the water restrictions and current water 4 life rules are enforceable with fines issued by authorised officers. The Water 4 life rules replace the previous level 0 and level 1 water restrictions, however level 2 and 3 restrictions can still be implemented if water levels in the dams drop below pre existing thresholds. In the Sydney reason demand management focuses strongly on residential water use as this is 70% of the water used in Sydney and it is hoped that water saving measures by residents and businesses will save 145 Billion Litres of water a year by 2015. (Sydney Water, 2010) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There is little room for major changes in the demand management side of water management in Sydney. This is due to the fact that water wise rules and water restrictions can only apply to water use outside of residential houses, this leaves water saving and efficiency measures for the water used inside the house an entirely voluntary process. Education and advertising can encourage people to be more efficient but dramatic changes to water price to encourage people to save water can have a negative effect on people’s ability to access the water they require for health and quality of life, especially people under financial hardship for other reasons. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There is greater flexibility in the supply management aspect of the Sustainable Water Plan for Sydney. This is finding new supplies of water for the region which are if possible not rainfall reliant. Four potential supply solutions would be a new dam system in Sydney, stormwater harvesting, desalination and water recycling. The first two of these solutions are less appropriate for a number of reasons. First of all both these systems are rainfall reliant so would not serve to alleviate water stress in drought conditions. There are few suitable locations for a new dam in Sydney due to the pre existing development and the most suitable location at Welcome Reef has been placed on indefinite hold (Sydney Catchment Authority, 2002). Stormwater harvesting is a more complicated issue for Sydney Water as Sydney Water doesn’t maintain the majority of the storm water systems in the region. The local council is in charge of storm water maintenance so it would need to occur on a council by council basis. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Kurnell Desalination plant was a relatively controversial decision that was made, but now that it is in operation it supplies 15% of Sydney’s water needs with the potential to increase to 30%. As it is using sea water it is not reliant on rainfall and can increase production when there is need. However there was a large cost both environmentally and economically by the construction of the plant. However the majority of this economic cost and much of the environmental cost was during the construction of the plant and as this investment has been made the continued use of the desalination plant a much more reasonable option when compared with the costs for decommissioning it and developing an alternate system (WSAA, 2010). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The final option for supply management of water in Sydney is water recycling. The goal here is to move away from the current once through water system to a closed off water cycle. By closing off the water cycle it treats waste water as a resource to be utilised not waste to be disposed of. Recycled water can be used for non drinking purposes and treated accordingly or it can be used for drinking and treated accordingly, this is called indirect potable reuse. Once again the big advantage for this process is it is not reliant on rainfall and there is even less environmental impact than desalination. Recycled water for non drinking purposes is generally supported by communities, but water of non drinking water quality can only used for about 30% of the water use in a household. Another issue with this form of water recycling is the new pipe system required which limits this system primarily to new growth areas. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Indirect potable reuse is a more controversial proposal, and in Sydney would involve treating it to a high level and pumping it into the upper Nepean River to feedback into Warragamba dam. There are both major advantages and disadvantages to this system. The is less new infrastructure required and therefore it is a solution for all on Sydney rather than a particular area, however there are economic costs in the pumping system to move the water around Sydney. The treatment system is almost identical to the desalination process so the cost there is similar. Finally there is much more community opposition to drinking recycled water in Australia, despite the frequency of this process being used overseas. This social stigma is the main hold up for indirect potable reuse in Australia as the technology is as reliable as other potable water sources (Smith, 2005). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">No single method listed above will provide the solution to the water management and supply issues in Sydney. A sustainable water plan for Sydney would attempt to balance the environmental, social and economic factors involved in providing water to residents in the Sydney region. The growing population of Sydney will require both more water and more reliable water and this will only be managed through a system of demand management and supply management. New sources of water for Sydney will most reliably be found either through a combination of desalination and water recycling. Both these supply systems will have an environmental cost and economic cost, but these costs are required to be able to provide for people’s social need, that is access to clean reliable water to maintain their health and quality of life. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Aplin, G., Beggs, P., Brierley, G., Cleugh, H., Curson, P., Mitchell, P., Pitman, A. & Rich, D. (1999) <i>Global Environmental Crises: an Australian perspective 2nd ed</i>. Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Australian State of the Environment Committee (2001) <i>Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Chris Duke and the Royals (2006) Water<i>, Scissors, Paper, Rock!</i>, Audio CD, Electric Sun Productions, Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water NSW, (2010a) <i>Who Cares About the Environment in 2009? A survey of NSW people’s environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviours</i>, NSW Government: Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water NSW, (2010b) <i>Who Cares About the Environment in 2009? At a glance</i>, NSW Government: Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Dovers, S. (2008) Urban Waters: Policy, Institutions and Government, in P. (ed) <i>Troubled Waters: Confronting the Water Crisis in Australia’s Cities</i>, ANU epress, Canberra </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">El Saliby I, Olour, Y, Shon HK, Kandasamy J & Kim S (2009) <i>Desalination plants in Australia, review and facts</i>, </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Gunder, M. & Hillier, J. (2009) <i>Planning in ten words or less</i>, Ashgate, Sustainability of and for the market. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal in Janse van Rensburg et. Al. 2002 <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>. Pretoria </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Misra BM & Kupitz, J (2004) The role of nuclear desalination in meeting the potable water needs in water scarce areas in the next decades, <i>Desalination 166, pp 1-9 </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">National Water Commission, (2007), <i>Using recycled water for drinking: An Introduction, Waterlines Occasional Paper No 2</i>, GHD, Australian Government: Canberra. Located at </span><a href="http://www.nwc.gov.au/resources/documents/using-recy-water-drinking-body-Waterlines-0607.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.nwc.gov.au/resources/documents/using-recy-water-drinking-body-Waterlines-0607.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">NSW Office of Water (2010) <i>2010 Metropolitan Water Plan</i>, NSW Government: Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Smith S. (2005) <i>Desalination, waste water, and the Sydney Metropolitan Water Plan, Briefing Paper No 10/05</i>, NSW Parliamentary Library Research Service: Sydney located at </span><a href="http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/D92DB6F939EAC6FECA2570680025DA5E/$File/Desalination%20and%20index.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/D92DB6F939EAC6FECA2570680025DA5E/$File/Desalination%20and%20index.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sydney Catchment Authority (2002) <i>Water Saving Efforts Stop $1 billion dam and Create New Nature Reserve</i>, Media Release available at </span><a href="http://www.sca.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/march-2002/water-saving-efforts-stop-$1billion-dam-and-create-new-nature-reserve" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.sca.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/march-2002/water-saving-efforts-stop-$1billion-dam-and-create-new-nature-reserve</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sydney Catchment Authority (2010) <i>Water Storage and Supply Report</i> available at </span><a href="http://www.sca.nsw.gov.au/dams-and-water/weekly-storage-and-supply-reports/2010/4-november-2010" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.sca.nsw.gov.au/dams-and-water/weekly-storage-and-supply-reports/2010/4-november-2010</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sydney Water (2010) <i>Area of Operations</i> available at </span><a href="http://www.sydneywater.com.au/OurSystemsAndOperations/images/AreaOfOperations.jpg" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.sydneywater.com.au/OurSystemsAndOperations/images/AreaOfOperations.jpg</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sydney Water Corporation (2010) <i>Desalination</i>, www.sydneywater.com.au/Water4Life/desalination </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sydney Water Corporation (2010) <i>Water for Life</i>, </span><a href="http://www.waterforlife.nsw.gov.au/desalination" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.waterforlife.nsw.gov.au/desalination</a></span> </div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Syme, G. (2008) Sustainability in Urban Water Futures, in Troy, P. (ed) <i>Troubled Waters: Confronting the Water Crisis in Australia’s Cities</i>, ANU epress, Canberra </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (1987) <i>Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future</i> found at </span><a href="http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Water Technology Net (2010) <i>Desalination</i>, </span><a href="http://www.water-technology.net/" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.water-technology.net</a></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Water Technology Net (2010) <i>White Paper: Solar-Driven Desalination with Reverse Osmosis</i>. Located at </span><a href="http://www.water-technology.net/downloads/whitepapers/environmental/file1524" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.water-technology.net/downloads/whitepapers/environmental/file1524</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">WSAA (2006) <i>Refilling the Glass; Exploring the issues surrounding water recycling in Australia, Water Services Association of Australia Position Paper No. 2</i>. located at </span><a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/Publications/Documents/WSAAPositionPaper2%20Refilling%20the%20Glass.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">https://www.wsaa.asn.au/Publications/Documents/WSAAPositionPaper2%20Refilling%20the%20Glass.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed November 2010 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">WSAA (2010) Implications of population growth in Australia on urban water resources, Water Services Association of Australia, <i>Occasional Paper No. 25</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Young, A. (2000) <i>Environmental Change in Australia since 1788 2nd Ed</i>. Oxford University Press Melbourne </span></span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-19113916233056271562011-07-27T23:56:00.000-07:002011-07-27T23:56:54.146-07:00Interpretation of Sustainable Development for Urban Regions<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sustainable Development is a relatively new concept, especially compared with the concept of Urban Planning and Development. It has only really emerged in the last few decades, but it is one of a small collection of concepts that receives nearly universal approval; concepts like justice, equity, democracy and fairness (Hattingh, 2002). As a concept very few people are willing to challenge the precepts of Sustainability and Sustainable Development (Gunder & Hillier, 2009). In spite of this nearly universal approval however the concept of Sustainable Development remains a subject that is remarkably hard to achieve a definition that is universally approved. In essence Sustainable Development is a concept that everybody approves of even if they can’t quite agree on what exactly Sustainable Development actually means. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Our Common Future, which is more commonly known as the Bruntland report gave the first and most often repeated definition of Sustainable Development. Sustainable Development is defined in this report as; </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">“Sustainable Development is Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (United Nations, 1987) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> This definition of Sustainable Development is quite vague and has lead to repeated attempts over the past decades to refine, redefine and expand on this concept of sustainable development. Indeed since the Bruntland report’s definition an entire industry has developed around deciphering and advocating what Sustainable Development means (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, 2005). Indeed despite being embraced as a basis for integrating environmental, social and economic decision making in Australia since the Brundtland report was published (Buhrs & Aplin, 1999) in 2007 the Australian government was still only in the act of (re)defining what Sustainability meant to Australia (The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2007). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Often the difficulty in defining Sustainable Development comes from the different opinions of just what needs to be sustained and what needs to be developed (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, 2005). It has been said that whilst in the last few decades knowledge of what needs to be sustained has increased it is the definition of what and how to develop that has become more difficult (Sneddon, Howarth & Norgaard, 2006). The large variety of viewpoints that can be seen and expressed within the Sustainable Development debate can be seen in Figure 1. On one axis you have increasing socio-economic well being concerns and on the other you have increasing environmental concerns, with the shaded area representing views in the sustainable development debate. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Figure 1 (not included here)- Different views on Sustainable development (Hopwood, Mellor and O’Brien, 2005) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The under emphasis of the natural environment in the Brundtland report’s definition is why this definition has been called a “weak” definition of sustainability, where Sustainability can be achieved with the replacement of natural capital if the overall stock of capital has been maintained over time. A “strong” definition of Sustainability is one in which the maintenance of natural capital is required (Hattingh, 2002). Natural Capital is defined as both living systems and ecosystems and the renewable and non renewable resources used by humans such as water, minerals, oil, air, soil and fish (Hawken, Loving & Loving, undated). It has taken billions of years for the Earth’s supply of natural capital to develop and much of the capital being used is irreplaceable and this is what has lead to the main divide between weak and strong definitions of sustainability. Because of this looseness of definition Sustainable Development and Sustainability are terms used and redefined constantly by environmentalists, politicians and business leaders; all in different ways and there is now the risk that there are so many definitions that the concept may be becoming increasingly empty and in fact be moving towards meaninglessness (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, 2005 and Hopwood, Mellor and O’Brien, 2005). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The concept of sustainability has been adapted to fit a variety of different challenges such as sustainable cities, sustainable livelihoods, sustainable agriculture and sustainable fishing (Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, 2005) and all of these concepts would come underneath the banner of “Sustainable Development” for at least some of the stakeholders in this process. But despite this and the wide variety of definitions of just what Sustainable Development entails there has slowly developed a core set of values and principles. These concepts are the “three pillars” of Sustainable Development; social, environmental and economic development. Thus whilst there might be considerable debate about the exact nature of Sustainable Development, with no one definition being correct (Harding, 1998) the vast majority of interpretations of Sustainable Development, both weak and strong focus on achieving a balance between these three domains; the environment, society and the economy (with the precise balance being what differs between definitions). As such there is an incredible array of different issues that come under the banner of Sustainable Development according to different people, issues such as; climate change, peak oil, deforestation, over fishing, threats to biodiversity, equality, urbanisation, food security, alternative energy, water pollution and wealth distribution can all be expressed in a sustainable development context. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">With this in mind Sustainable Development policies and programs are especially important, as for the first time in history more people live in urban settings than in rural ones, this fact means that urban regions will be a key area worldwide for Sustainable Development planning. Cities and Urban regions are clearly at the centre of the Sustainable Development debate, this is both due to the number of people living in urban regions, but the amount of resources these regions consume relative to their size and the fact they are the technological and economic centres of the modern world (Finko & Nijkamp, 2001). This is especially true for Australia due to the high urbanisation rates and low density cities. 83% of the Australian population lives within 50km of the coast and the majority of the population lives in cities of over 1 million people. Housing stocks in Australia are growing rapidly and population growth is largest in cities. Australians are generally well housed with a high level of satisfaction with their standard of housing, and this is despite housing affordability issues. The amount of travel, particularly by car is increasing in Australian cities and this can have both health and quality of life issues attached to it. Changes to urban form and growth of cities are also subjecting a greater number of people to environmental noise issues (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). All of these above urban development issues can be viewed from a Sustainable Development perspective, so a policy to counteract one of these issues can be seen as part of a Sustainable Development strategy whether it is formally acknowledged or not. Issues in Australian occurring from the urban environment intersecting with the natural environment that are of particular importance can be summarised as </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Growth of the “Mega Metropolitan” areas, particularly Sydney and the rest of the South Eastern growth corridor. Planning will need to take into account the disparity of growth and investment between large cities and also handle the high growth areas. </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Urbanisation of Coastal Environments, especially on the East Coast. This will have a large affect on both the existing natural local environment and local economy. </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The differential growth patterns of Inland urban regions. Due to economic shifts some inland urban areas are seeing a decline in population whilst some are seeing rather rapid growth. </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Ageing urban infrastructure and the inability of new infrastructure construction to keep up with growth rates is a concern in urban areas (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). </span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Attention to these issues and more is required for Australian urban regions to begin on the path to sustainability, changes are required institutionally, change in the structures and approaches of the agencies of government, the private sector and the professions, and change in the way that issues and problems are defined and their solutions are approached (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). As such policy or planning on any of these issues can be seen as relating to the Sustainable Development of Urban Regions. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In Europe many of the Sustainable Development issues being faced are similar to Australia due to similar levels of urbanisation and growth, with transport, energy use and industry causing the greatest affect on the natural environment. These areas along with tourism however are listed as being the areas that stand to gain the most from planning within a Sustainable Development framework (European Communities, 1993). Figure 2 shows how regional urban development can be seen to affect the surrounding natural environment. It is shown from a European perspective but is just as valid for non European urban regions. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Figure 2 (not included here)- The affect of Urban Development on the natural environment (European Communities, 1993) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">To some extent however urban growth can be seen as a positive in the Developing World. Sustained Industrial Development has been a major contributor to poverty reduction and economic growth, especially in Asia. However not all developing countries share these benefits (United Nations, 2006). Most Urban growth in the world has occurred in Developing countries and is particularly due to rural-urban migration. Despite the growth often occurring faster than services can be provided, which can affect health, it has been shown that in developing countries services are still often better in urban environments that the corresponding rural ones and that the largest number of people living in poverty are still found in rural areas (Aplin et al., 1999). Environmental stress and lack of productive lands are often blamed for this rural-urban migration but it is more than just this. Social structures which regulating access to resources thought to improve quality of life also play a very important role in this migration pattern (Morrissey, 2008). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Depopulation of the sparser inhabited areas of the country is also seen as an issue in the Swedish Strategy for Sustainable Development with a review of planning and building legislation to bring town and country planning more into line with Sustainable Development goals. Particular focus is also being paid to calculating the costs and environmental impacts of the building sector by both the Swedish national government and the European Union. More sustainable energy use is another focus of the Swedish government and improving road and rail transportation with long term Sustainable Development goals in mind are additional aspects of the built environment section of the National Strategy (Swedish Ministry of the Environment, 2004). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The United Kingdom’s national sustainability strategy, Securing the Future sees creating sustainable communities a challenging task requiring the integrated delivery of environmental, economic and social goals. The attempt is to tackle this at the local level with the sustainable communities’ agenda, especially focusing on equality and participation whilst working on equalling opportunities at the national level (HM Government, 2005). This relationship between centralised direction and localised action is particularly apparent in the English example but common throughout the world, as globally agreed goals are expressed at a national level and then attempted to be delivered at a grass roots level (Smith, Blake & Davies, 2000). It has been observed that in Australia there can be difficulties when local strategic land use plans and Local Envionmental Plans have goals not aligned with State Government agency developed regional plans (NSW Department of Local Government, 2006). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sustainable Urban development is an incredibly important objective on the way to the goal of achieving Sustainability. This is because cities hold the majority of people on the planet and are the largest consumers of resources on the planet also and it is the balancing of the three pillars of Sustainable Development (the environment, the economy and societal needs) that provides the greatest challenge to creating Sustainable Urban Regions (Finco & Nijkamp, 2001). The planner faces the challenges of not only simultaneously growing the economy, but spreading this growth equitably whilst not degrading the natural environment (Campbell, 1996). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The reported level of success that has been had by Urban planning in delivering Sustainable Development outcomes has often depended on whom is reporting the results, but generally the levels of success have been mixed. Often results of the sustainable communities projects in the United Kingdom have been hampered by an inability to generate enough local participation, such as in Huntingdonshire (Smith, Blake & Davies, 2000) or Sutton (Local Government Management Board, 1997). More success has been reported by programs such as the Hornsby Council in Sydney’s Earthwise Community Sustainability Indicators Program (Hornsby Shire Council, 2004) although the outcomes of this program are related to creating indicators that may later be involved in council planning to indicate progress towards sustainability. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Nationally results are reported to be even more positive, despite a lack of progress by many countries towards global Sustainable Development goals such as reducing the effect of climate change. Achievements since 1999 listed in the UK government National Sustainable Development Strategy in Sustainable Communities chapter are </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Places getting cleaner </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Places getting safer </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Places getting more attractive (HM Government, 2005) </span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Whilst these achievements would all come under the banner of Sustainable Development they hardly seem as critical for a national government when compared to Sustainable Developments intention to improving equality and quality of life for all citizens whilst minimising or eliminating natural environment degradation. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In Australia sustainable urban design has been noted as lacking. Often there are good strategies but then structures that contravene those strategies are still allowed to proceed. The failure of transferring academic research and theory into Sustainable Urban Design into practice has been singled out as a significant problem as has the length of time required to put good urban design into practice when compared to the short term political decision making cycle of Australia (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sustainable Development is an incredibly important issue in the world, with Sustainable Urban Development being a critical part of this due to the size of cities in the world, the percentage of the population living in those cities and the resources they consume. Developing effective Sustainable Urban development strategies is complicated greatly due to the variety of conflicting definitions of Sustainable Development and the various groups intent on using and coopting this term to further their own interests (either status quo or transformative). There have been a large variety of strategies and programs that could be claimed to fall under the banner of Sustainable Urban Development constructed at a variety of scales and whilst some have been reported as successful and some as unsuccessful there has been relatively few large scale Urban Sustaiable Development Policies that can be regarded as true successes, especially when looked at in relation to the broad goals of Sustainable development, that is to increase the quality of life of all citizens in an equitable manner whilst maintaining or improving natural environmental quality. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></u></b> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Aplin, G., Beggs, P., Brierley, G., Cleugh, H., Curson, P., Mitchell, P., Pitman, A. & Rich, D. (1999) <i>Global Environmental Crises: an Australian perspective, 2nd Ed.</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Australian State of the Environment Committee (2001) <i>Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Buhrs, T. & Aplin, G. (1999) Pathways towards sustainability: The Australian approach. <i>Journal of Environmental Planning and Management</i>. Abingdon </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Campbell, S. (1996) Green Cities, Growing Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and the Contradictions of Sustainable Development. <i>Journal of the American Planning Association, 62:3, p296-312</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">European Communities (1993) <i>Towards Sustainability, Official Journal of the European Communities</i>, No C 138/5 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Finco, A. & Nijkamp, P. (2001) Pathways to Urban Sustainability, <i>Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 3 p289-302 </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Gunder, M. & Hillier, J. (2009) <i>Planning in ten words or less</i>, Ashgate, Sustainability of and for the market. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal in Janse van Rensburg et. Al. 2002 <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>. Pretoria </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Harding, R. (1998) <i>Environmental Decision Making: the roles of scientists, engineers and the public</i>. The federation press. Sydney </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hawken, P. Lovins, A. & Lovins, L.H. <i>Natural Capitalism: Creating the next industrial revolution</i> (see excerpts </span><a href="http://www.naturalcapitalism.org/" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.naturalcapitalism.org/</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">HM Government (2005) <i>Securing the Future; the UK government sustainable development strategy</i>. Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hopwood, B. Mellor, M. & O’Brien, G. (2005) Sustainable Development: Mapping different approaches. <i>Sustainable Development, 13, 38-52</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hornsby Shire Council (2004) <i>Case Study: Hornsby Earthwise Community Sustainability Indicators Project</i>, Hornsby Council </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Kates, R. Parris & T. Leiserowitz, A. (2005) What is sustainable development Goals, Indicators, Values and Practice. <i>Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, Volume 47, Number 3 8-21</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Local Government Management Board (1997) <i>Towards a Sustainable Sutton</i>. Local Agenda 21 UK Case Study Project </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Morrissey, J. (2008) Rural Urban Migration in Ethiopia. <i>Forced Migration Review, 31. 28-29 </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">NSW Department of Local Government (2006) <i>Planning a Sustainable Future</i>: A Department of Local Government Options paper on Integrated planning and reporting for NSW Local Councils, Department of Local Government </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Smith, J. Blake, J. & Davies, A. (2000) Putting Sustainability in Place: Sustainable communities projects in Huntingdonshire. <i>Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning 2 211-223 </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sneddon, C. Howarth & R. Norgaard, R. (2006) Sustainable development in a post Brundtland world. <i>Ecological Economics 57 253-268 </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Swedish Ministry of the Environment (2004) <i>A Swedish Strategy for Sustainable Development- Economic, Social and Environmental</i>, Swedish Ministry of the Environment </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2007) <i>Sustainability for survival: creating a climate for change Inquiry into a sustainability charter</i> House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage Canberra: House of Representatives Publishing Unit http://www.aph.gove.au/house/committee/environ/charter/report/fullreport.pdf </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (1987) <i>Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future</i> </span><a href="http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.un-doduments.net/wced-ocf.htm</a></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (2006) <i>Trends in Sustainable Development</i>. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. New York </span></span></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-29987563813469084132011-07-27T23:45:00.000-07:002011-07-27T23:45:27.393-07:00While Environmental Planning emerged as a profession in the 1970s, the environmental planning movement was evident sometime before this<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There can be little doubt that the environment is a major consideration for planning in the world today and that the environmental movement has considerable influence on the planning profession today (Williams, 2007), but it is much harder to trace back to when and where this environmental concern arose from. Environmental concern in planning did not appear out of the blue in the 1970s, it existed in various guises with differing degrees of influence just as planning as a concept did not emerge out of the blue at the turn of the 19th century but had existed in a variety of forms before then. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Planning can be seen as a product of its time (Freestone, 2007), reflecting, shaping and being shaped by social trends (Williams, 2007). This means the prevailing social, economic and environmental ideas are reflected in the planning theories of the time. Thus with the emergence of the modern environmental movement around the 1970s there can also be seen an emergence of environmental planning. However, environmental concerns do predate this 1970s emergence even if they are not primarily identified as environmental concerns, and much like this environmental concerns in planning existed prior to the 1970s even if they are not formally identified as such. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Environmental planning and in particular the term “environment” can have a broad variety of meaning. Environment at its most basic simply means “the sum total of the conditions of the surroundings within which an organism, or group, or an object exists” (Clark, 2003). This means environments can be used to talk about the natural, disturbed and artificial environment. This means in the broadest sense, assuming that the term “environmental” covers the built environment too, all planning can be considered environmental planning as planning has been focused on the built environment since its inception. However a more common definition is that “environmental” planning is more concerned with the natural environment. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> An appreciation of the natural environment is not a new development in human history, however the most dramatic changes in attitude to the environment in Australia (since European settlement) have been since 1970 (coinciding with the emergence of environmental planning as a profession). These changes have been formalised with changes to laws regarding; pollution, chemical use, protection of native flora and fauna (especially endangered species) and regulation of natural resource use (Young, 2000). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The origin of a specific identity for planning dates to around the turn of the 19th century, emerging from ideas like the garden city movement, the city beautiful movement and concerns over public health (Thompson, 2007). Planning however has existed from ancient history to the present day in a variety of names, with a variety of different functions even if it wasn’t explicitly identified as planning. Classical Greece developed planning theories for the building of their city states and colonies, whilst in cultures like Ancient Egypt planning and architecture existed mainly to reinforce the power of the rulers with cities such as Thebes designed to meet religious and governmental roles (Greed, 2000). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> It is however the 19th century that is identified as when modern town planning began to emerge in response to the conditions of life in the major metropolises of the age. Initially it was deeply concerned with improving urban health, efficiency and beauty (Freestone, 2007). The earliest planning reforms were intended to simply deal with the (linked) effects of disease, overcrowding and slum development. Drainage and sewerage were made necessary along with other interventions to halt the spread of cholera and other disease (Greed, 2000). In the United Kingdom the Public Health Act of 1875 provided local authorities the power to make and enforce building bylaws to control the height, structure and layout of buildings and the width of streets in an attempt to address air and water pollution, waste disposal and ventilation issues (Wood, 1999). These actions were done in the name of public health and chiefly aimed at the working class (Greed, 2000). This development of the planning system (in the United Kingdom) from a concern about health and pollution in fact give an environmental origin for planning that has since been forgotten (Wood, 1999). Indeed combating pollution is a major role for environmental planning today. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Initially planners like Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier (even if they did not self identify as planners) concentrated on transforming the urban environment with new designs and dramatic changes to the cities of their time. Whilst all pushing different ideas and directions they felt good planning was a way of creating social harmony. The plans arose from the fear and revulsion felt over the 19th century metropolises, an excitement about what technology meant for new urban forms and the expectation that a new age of freedom was at hand. Concentrating on ideal models for cities their plans may seem utopian to us today but they were in fact not just architectural changes but complete alternate societies (Fishman, 1996). None of these plans had much of a focus on the natural environment however, dealing mainly with architecture, urban design, politics and economics. Housing was the main question and Garden Cities (popularised by Howard) was one of the main answers (Hall, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Howard’s Garden city was seen by the inventor (for he saw himself as an inventor not a planner) as a combination of proposals already before the public. Focusing on combating the poverty that existed in existing cities it held many radical social ideas dating to the late 1800s (Fishman, 1996), there was no focus on the natural environment. The surrounding greenbelt parks of the Garden Cities existed mainly for human amenity however they could potentially serve a purpose of conservation and protection for the natural environment. As such the garden city movement can be seen to have an (initially) unintended connection to the environmental movement and what would later become known as environmental planning. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Planning focus started to shift during the 1920s, whilst still concerned primarily with housing there was a greater focus on planning for future needs due to the accelerating urban growth (Freestone, 2007). The Garden city movement had begun to give way towards modernist integrated high density ideas like Le Corbusier’s Radiant City (Hall, 2002) however, with housing and density the focus there was a decline in what could be seen as environmental planning. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Affordable housing and slum clearance and other social concerns came to the fore in the 1930s thanks to the depression (Freestone, 2007), with still no environmental focus. But an even bigger change to planning occurred in the post WW2. Post war reconstruction saw a burst to planning activity all over Europe with strategic plans for cities like London, Stockholm and Copenhagen (Hall, 2002). These plans tried to integrate the planning ideas that had emerged since the 19th century like garden cities, rural conservation, urban renewal, traffic planning, affordable housing and regional development, and influenced planning in cities such as Sydney, Ottawa and Tokyo worldwide (Amati & Freestone, 2009). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The post war period was not one where concern about the environment was strong so environmental planning was not a focus (Wood, 1999). One of the pre eminent names in planning of this era is that of Patrick Abercrombie, who amongst other things created the post war plans for London. His background as an architect was a common thing for planners in his time but is rare now and he held the technocratic outlook that was common for planners of his time. Favouring one shot design solutions he avoided many of the things common in planning now such as costing, cost benefit analysis, monitoring or projections feeling that much of the job needed to be done so cost was irrelevant and that poverty and inequality were concerns of sociologists and not planners (Amati & Freestone, 2009; Hall, 1995). His view of the car as a liberator to be planned for was also common for the time (Hall, 1995) and this could be seen as at odds with current environmental planning focuses. He continued to promote the Greenbelt idea proposed by the Garden City movement, which today has a strong connection to sustainability and environmental planning (Amati & Taylor, 2010). Indeed the post war period could be seen as a “heyday” for the Greenbelt, however the reasons initially put forward for the green belts were inevitably closer related to separation of urban and rural areas and providing human amenity rather than direct environmental concerns (Evans & Freestone, 2010). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The recognised environmental movement began to emerge worldwide around the 1970s and it is at this time we see the linked (re)emergence of environmental planning. Events like the Green Bans in Sydney during the early 1970s showed the power of this newly emerging environmental movement and brought this movement into the field of planning (The Planning Boardroom, 2010). In a case of history repeating itself the first environmental issues that environmental planning would be related to in the 1970s would be that of pollution. In this period pollution became a much more important factor in development control than it ever had been before (Wood, 1999). However in this case it was environmental health issues being the driving factor rather than simply human health. Protection of the environment became a one of the many focuses in this era (Hall, 2002) rather than one focus, such as housing that had existed previously. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The environmental agenda has remained at the forefront of planning since the emergence of the modern environmental movement in the 1970s. A development plan without environmental protection policies is as rare today as one including environmental protection was during the post war period (Wood, 1999). However concerns have broadened to include more than just the initial concerns of pollution and degradation (Hall, 2002) to things like globalisation, sustainable development, habitat protection and biodiversity conservation (Williams, 2007). As the environment has become a much more high profile issue politically since the 1970s there has also been an increase in political interest in environmental planning, particularly concerning issues such as sustainable development where planning is seen as a key instrument in delivering land use and development compatible with sustainable development (Wood, 1999). In fact the growth in concern about the environment and the subsequent creation of dedicated environmental agencies has been criticised as making environmental planning a more complicated issue (Williams, 2007). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Planning can be seen as a reflection of social trends, and the emergence of the modern environmental movement in the 1970s can directly be linked to the emergence of the modern environmental planner as a profession, however this is not the first time that environmental concerns have been present in planning. The fluctuation in concern for the environment socially is reflected in the fluctuations of importance given to the natural environment in planning. Planning grew out of initial concerns about pollution connected to the industrial revolution thus giving it a strong environmental connection at the beginning. As the concerns of society changed however the environmental focus of planning declined to its lowest level in the post war period where it was all but forgotten, only to re-emerge in the 1970s, and with this can the emergence of the environmental planning profession. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The environmental planning movement has been around since the inception of the planning movement it has just ebbed and flowed with the level of environmental concern in the society at the time. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Amati, M. & Freestone, R. (2009) ‘Saint Patrick’ Sir Patrick Abercrombie’s Australian tour 1948, <i>Town Planning Review 80</i> (6) </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Amati, M. & Taylor, L. (2010) From Green Belts to Green Infrastructure, <i>Planning, Practice & Research 25 (2) </i></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Clark, A. (2003) <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Geography, 3rd Ed</i>, Penguin Books, London </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Evans, C. & Freestone, R. (2010) From Green Belt to Green Web: Regional open space planning in Sydney, 1948-1963, <i>Planning, Practice & Research 25 (2)</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Fishman, R. (1996) Urban Utopias: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, in <i>Readings in Planning Theory 2nd Ed</i>, Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Freestone, R. (2007) <i>A History of Planning, in Planning Australia: An overview of urban and regional planning</i> ed Thompson, S., Cambridge University Press, Melbourne </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Greed, C. (2000) <i>Introducing Planning</i>, The Athlone Press, London </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hall, P. (1995) Bringing Abercrombie back from the shades: A look forward and back, <i>Town Planning Review 66 (3)</i> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hall, P. (2002) Planning: millennial retrospect and prospect, <i>Progress in Planning 57</i> pp 263-284 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Planning Boardroom (2010) <i>The Green Ban Movement</i>, accessed online at http://www.theplanningboardroom.net/the-green-ban-movement/ last accessed March 2011 </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Thompson, S. (2007) What is Planning? In <i>Planning Australia: An overview of urban and regional planning</i>, ed Thompson, S., Cambridge University Press, Melbourne </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Williams, P. (2007) The Natural Environment, in <i>Planning Australia: An overview of urban and regional planning</i>, ed Thompson, S., Cambridge University Press, Melbourne </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Wood, C. (1999) Environmental Planning, in <i>British Planning: 50 years of urban and regional policy</i>, ed Cullingworth, B., Athlone Press, London </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Young, A. (2000) <i>Environmental Change in Australia since 1788, 2nd Ed</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-69560875486666725702011-07-27T23:38:00.000-07:002011-07-27T23:38:10.227-07:00Food Localisation and Sustainability<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">“Short food supply chains (SFSCs) short-circuit long anonymous supply chains characteristic of industrial food production. Producer-consumer relations are shortened and redefined by giving clear signals on the provenance and quality attributes of food. Lastly, SFSCs are an important carrier for shortening relations between food production and locality, re-embedding farming towards more environmentally sustainable modes of production.” (After Renting, Marsden and Banks, 2003, p. 398) </span></span></i> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Food localisation and urban food security are two related areas that have received an ever increasing amount of attention in recent years. Discussion of this issue is often quite emotive, especially in the language involved due to how crucial food security is to basic quality of life for all people. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Much of this attention is often focusing on how sustainable the current industrial food production system is. Whilst there are a variety of interpretations of just what sustainability as a concept means, sustainability is one of the few concepts such as peace and freedom, that have near universal support worldwide (Hattingh, 2002). Sustainability as such can be seen as the “holy grail” of the worldwide environmental movement. Whilst nearly every organisation and person in the world has a different vision of just what sustainability is and should be, there are a variety of common features, sustainability requires three separate and often competing factors to be balanced equitably, both between generations and within the current generation. The three factors are social, environmental and economic development. It is the weighing of importance these factors are given by different people and organisations that creates the large variety in opinions of what sustainability actually means. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Food security is a new concept for discussion and planning in Developed Nations, in the past it has traditionally been limited to developing nations. Food security is the access people, households and communities have to appropriate and nutritious food, and having the skills to use and access that food. Due to the central nature of food security to quality of life it can be seen as an important issue for sustainability. As a nation Australia is considered to be food secure (NSW Centre for Public Health Nutrition, 2003) and this can be extended to Sydney as a city. Rates of food security are not even across the population however. Food insecurity rates are found to be a lot higher in low income and disadvantaged groups in all developed countries around the world. The unemployed, low wage earners, single parent households and indigenous communities are all more vulnerable to food insecurity (despite this food insecurity is not just limited to the poorest members of a population). People suffering from disabilities, homelessness, mental illness and drug or alcohol addiction are also more likely to be food insecure (NSW Centre for Public Health Nutrition, 2003). As many of these issues can be linked to certain areas of Sydney food insecurity also has a definite geographic component, with the more “disadvantaged” areas of Sydney like the West and South West far more vulnerable. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Food security is an issue that can be linked to all three aspects of sustainability. The obvious link is between economic equity and food insecurity as there is a strong link between diet and socio economic status (NSW Centre for Public Health Nutrition, 2003). Households that are disadvantaged socially by factors such as low levels of education or English speaking ability are also more likely to be food insecure. Also for the first time in human history there are more people living in cities than rural areas and this has created a disconnection between the majority of the population and its food source. The connection between environmental factors and food insecurity is harder to make but food production is closely linked to environmental quality and both wide scale global environmental problems and small scale local environmental problems have the potential to impact on food production. Global and large scale environmental issues such as global warming, salinity and droughts connected to the El Nino effect can potentially impact severely on the large food producing regions. Approximately 50% of the total vegetable production tonnage of New South Wales comes from the Murray-Darling and Murrimbidgee areas that are under significant water stress (Parker, 2009). Smaller scale environmental problems like local pollution may not have the same level of impact on total food supply, but they are no less damaging to the food producers affected. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Much of the discussion over alternative food networks stems from these existing issues and the perception that the current predominant globalised industrial food provision system is unsustainable. One area of concern for many is the reliance of the current “globalised” industrial agricultural system on crude oil. The debate over peak oil is a complicated and still somewhat controversial issue with many opposing view points and no sign of consensus, however there is no doubt that crude oil is a finite non renewable resource and that it is depleted as it is used. This means that a heavy reliance on crude oil in any industry is ultimately unsustainable regardless of when “peak oil” is reached. Peak oil has economic, social and environmental consequences but nearly all stages of the modern food system rely on oil, from the fuel to transport the product and the plastic to package it to the processing on farms and even in the fertilisers used. As the food supply chains lengthen across the globe emissions from the transport has become a significant contributor to global warming with food transport being among the biggest and fastest growing sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Britain (Church, 2005 and Halweil, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The distance that food is being transported has increased dramatically in the last few decades due to advances in technology allowing longer storage and safer transport, this has also corresponded with an increase in packaging to help food survive the journey and increase the shelf life (Halweil, 2002) in the United Kingdom food now travels further on average than the average product, 129km compared to 94km (Church, 2005). An indicator used to demonstrate the unsustainable nature of the food system is comparing the ratio of energy inputs to energy outputs which has changed from 100:1 for preindustrial societies to as low as 0.00786:1 for things like iceberg lettuce being transported by plane across the Atlantic ocean currently (Church, 2005). The main reason for this relatively inefficient system is the steady availability of cheap oil, something that is threatened by the concept of peak oil. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The “globalised” nature of the current food system has also been criticised as inefficient and unsustainable. Not only is the transport of food products around the world energy inefficient the neo liberal trade system has been criticised as leaving countries vulnerable to key food shortages. Food shortages in both Mexico and the Philippines have been linked to the neo liberal economic system that has been part of the development of the modern industrial agricultural system (Bello, 2008). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">As such it has been proposed that a more localised food system would provide a more sustainable food system for both urban and rural areas. A system of “re-localisation” is seen as a possible resistance strategy to the powers of “globalisation” by linking food localisation to ideals of participation and community empowerment (DuPuis & Block, 2008) however realistic this may be. The main economic benefit of more localised food provision is keeping money circulating locally rather than money leaving the local economy through larger national and transnational corporations (Halweil, 2002) there are also economic benefits with the farmer receiving a greater share of the profits from selling the product (Sage, 2007 & La Trobe, 2002). Socially a more localised food network is seen to form deeper connections between producer and consumer due to the shorter supply chains (Sage, 2007). Once again connecting to the environmental aspects it is slightly more difficult to find benefits, however the most obvious is a reduction in greenhouse gas production and oil consumption due to the lower energy requirements from transporting the food shorter distances. Localised food networks are often associated with organic food production and smaller scale operations that provide benefits to biodiversity (La Trobe, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">An important consideration about local alternative food networks is just what local means, essentially how local is local? The issue of scale is a complex one, and can’t be limited to just a geographical distance. Scale is a matter of relation and attempts to just confine it to a size or level will miss these relationships (Howitt, 2002). Looking at social, economic and other environmental attributes of the food might provide a more realistic explanation of what “local” food is. Benefits such as economic welfare and environmental benefits to nearby producers, ensuring food travels the minimum distance possible and closer social connection would all be part of a genuinely local food production system (La Trobe, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">As a city Sydney still has a large amount of agriculture taking part within its boundaries. Employing around 12,000 people and producing 90% of perishable vegetables in NSW the Sydney region has the largest number of horticulturalists of any region in Australia. The value of production per hectare in the Sydney region is substantially above average ($5,433 per hectare compared to the state average of $136) and it is the second most important agricultural region in NSW (Parker, 2009). This shows that there is already a relatively large pre-existing local food production network “local” to Sydney, although this system is not necessarily an alternative food network, depending on just what system the farm is supplying. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There is a wide variety of localised alternative food networks that occur in Sydney and around the world. Fair trade and Organic farming methods do often provide an alternative to the current industrialised system, but are more than likely not operating on a local scale. Fair trade farming does not occur within the Sydney basin due to the developed nature of Sydney and whilst organic farming occurs in Sydney food marketed as organic is often not “local”. Three quarters of Britain’s organic produce is imported (a statistic probably representative of the rest of the developed world) predominantly due to the fact the demand for organic produce has increased at a much faster rate than the percentage of land organically farmed (Church, 2005). This limits the localised alternative food networks to the following broad groups; farmer’s markets, farm shops, roadside stalls, box schemes, community gardening, community supported agriculture and grow your own backyard gardening (Sage, 2007). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Farmer’s markets are a relatively popular alternative food network in Sydney as there are a number of self described farmer’s markets within the region. Camden farmers’ market, Good Living Growers’ Market, Hawkesbury Harvest Farmers & Gourmet Food Market, Northside Produce Market, The Rocks Farmers' Market, Warwick Farm Trackside Market, Bondi Organic Farmers Market, Chatswood Organic Farmers Market, EQ Farmers Produce Markets, Frenchs Forest Organic Farmers Market, Hornsby Mall Organic Farmers Market, Kings Cross Organic Farmers Market, Leichhardt Organic Farmers Market, Marrickville Organic Farmers Market, Manly West Organic Market, Penrith Original Farmers’ Market and Penrith Original Farmers’ Market are all found as advertised farmers’ markets with a very basic search on the internet. How localised the actual food is and how close the contact is between the producer and consumer is could vary considerably based on the requirements set by the market organisers however. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Farmers’ markets have a much longer history in countries in Europe but there has been a worldwide resurgence of this alternative food network in recent years. Farmers’ markets provide an excellent way for smaller scale growers to market to the public without large transaction requirements or minimum volume requirements (Sage, 2007). Economic benefits of markets are keeping the profits within the local area rather than moving through larger national or even multinational corporations (La Trobe, 2002). Social benefits of greater community integration arise due to the closer contact between producer and consumer and drawing community members to a central location (Sage, 2007). Again there are environmental benefits from shortening the supply chain and thus the food miles travelled (even if there is an increase to the distance travelled by the consumer) alongside benefits to the environment from the smaller scale of the farming operations (La Trobe, 2002). A additional bonus of farmers’ markets seen in the United States but not Sydney is the participation of farmers’ markets in food poverty schemes such as food stamps thus providing increased access to fruit and vegetables for economically disadvantaged local people (Sage, 2007). This social and economic benefit is not seen due to the lack of a food stamp style system within Australia. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Community Supported Agriculture schemes are less common in the Sydney region but provides many benefits. Community Supported Agriculture schemes can provide economic benefits to not only the grower (by connecting them to the consumer and providing a greater share of the profits) but also to the consumer by providing organic food at approximately 80% of the cost paid at larger supermarket chains (Transition Sydney, 2009). Socially a strong sense of community and cooperation is generated (Adam, 2002). Environmentally community supported agriculture schemes reduce the food miles travelled by supplying local food to local consumers and reduce waste produced by consumers and retailers (Food Futures, 2009). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The contributions that alternative food networks can make to local urban food provision are substantial however. The sheer size and scale of the dominant industrialised food system gives the supermarkets a very powerful position in the food supply chain and despite the scrutiny and criticism this results in, the large supermarkets are very quick to respond with large scale public relations campaigns to prevent the possibility of a tarnished brand (Freidberg, 2004). The size of the large supermarket chains has also enabled them to price out many small scale local retailers through price competitive measures such as loss leading and the possibility of one stop shopping. This can limit the potential for localised alternative food networks as globalised and centralised markets such as this are more suited to large scale specialised agriculture (Halweil, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The ease of access to many of these alternative food networks is also limiting in a large city like Sydney. Agriculture in Sydney is found mainly in the West, South West and North West obviously away from population centres. This means schemes that many of these alternative networks require the consumer to travel to participate in, increasing the distance travelled by the consumer (but probably decreasing food miles overall) and possibly making less mobile consumers (due to socio economic status or age) unable to participate. Perception of these schemes as expensive or only for the new middle class may also limit participation by lower socio economic groups. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Many of the arguments regarding food miles and the benefits of decreasing them can be called into question. The main reason for this is the fact that by simply decreasing the food miles you are not necessarily aiding the environment due to the various complexities that using food miles simplifies, such as the complicated links between distance travelled and transport emissions, differing modes of transport, differing energy and fuel uses and other greenhouse gas emissions (Rama & Lawrence, 2008). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Farmers’ markets in particular are more specifically limited by issues of space and legislation. The lack of historical farmers’ markets in Australia limits the number of specifically dedicated market areas so competing issues of development potential and ownership are less likely to occur than in places like Ireland (Sage, 2007). Locations such as schools are often used for these markets in Sydney limiting conflict as these locations are choosing to host markets, but it does require the appropriate disposal of the waste produced. There are also sometimes perceived hygiene issues that can limit support from other local organisations or councils (Sage, 2007). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Community supported agriculture also suffers from a unique set of limiting factors. Sydney Food Connect is the third attempt to start a Community Supported Agriculture scheme in Sydney. The first failed due to the fact it was situated at Bega and 200km from Sydney which was to far away for people to go and collect the food, indicating this was essentially not a “local” alternative food network. The second scheme was a lot closer to the city but ended when the farmer moved interstate (Food Futures, 2009). The complex logistical details of a community supported agricultural scheme also limit the size of the scheme and require specialised skills to run. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The final limitation to urban alternative food networks in Sydney is due to the growth of Sydney itself. Sydney is growing at a rate of up to approximately 1000 people a week and 50% of market gardens in Sydney are in the designated growth areas in North West and South West Sydney (Parker, 2009). Rising land values, urban expansion and disinterest amongst the children of farmers within the Sydney region all combining to reduce the amount of food produced within the Sydney region (Grayson, 2001). There needs to be a balance between these competing desires of urban and rural living, biodiversity and food production (Siclair et al., 2004). Additionally many of the market gardeners in Sydney are also of a non English speaking background and may have difficulty communicating and participating in alternative food networks. 90% of gardeners are of a cultural or linguistically diverse background and 90% of those gardeners have limited ability to read English (Parker, 2009). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Currently alternative Food Networks play a small role in the urban food provision of Sydney, however this role is slowly growing and becoming more important. Sydney is a fortunate city to have such fertile rural land within the basin surrounding the city and to keep the relatively high amount of locally produced food the remaining farmland will need to be protected from pressures such as development. It is widely acknowledged that the current industrialised food production system has many inefficient and unsustainable aspects, and many of these can better improved, reduced or mitigated by use of some of the alternative food networks, however the scale of these alternative food networks is such that they can’t supply the entirety of a large city such as Sydney. There will need to be a significant change in attitude in both the public and private sectors to make these alternative food networks more widely accepted and available to the entire population of Sydney, but environmental issues such as climate change and the looming peak oil may well provide the impetus for such a dramatic change to these far more sustainable local alternative food networks. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></u></b> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Adam, K. (2002) <i>Community Supported Agriculture</i>, ATTRA, February, </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/pdf/csa-ct.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/pdf/csa-ct.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">, (accessed November 2009) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Bello, W. (2008) <i>How to manufacture a global food crisis: Lessons from the World Bank, IMF, and WTO</i>, Transnational Institute. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Church, N. (2005) Why our food is so dependent on oil, 321 <i>Energy</i> 2 </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">DuPuis, E. & Block, D. (2008) Sustainability and Scale: US milk-market orders as relocalization policy. <i>Environment and Planning A</i>, Vol. 40 </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Food Futures. (2009) <i>Something new, something edible this way comes</i>, </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://pacific-edge.info/980" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://pacific-edge.info/980</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">, (accessed November 2009) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Freidberg, S. (2004) The ethical complex of corporate food power, <i>Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 22</i> </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Grayson, R. (2001) <i>Urban Farming on the way to Extinction</i>, Sydney Food Fairness Alliance: Resources, </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.sydneyfoodfairness.org.au/" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.sydneyfoodfairness.org.au</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> (accessed November 2009) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Halweil, B. (2002) Home Grown: The case for local food in a global market, <i>Worldwatch Paper no. 163</i>. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hattingh, J. (2002) On the imperative of sustainable development A philosophical and ethical appraisal in Janse van Rensburg et. al., <i>Environmental Education, Ethics and Action in Southern Africa</i>. Pretoria </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Howitt, R. (2002) Scale, in Agnew J., Mitchell, K. & Toal, G., <i>A Companion to Political Geography</i>. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">La Trobe, H. (2002) <i>Local food, future directions, report for Friends of the Earth</i>, London. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">NSW Centre for Public Health Nutrition, (2003) <i>Food Security Options Paper</i>, NSW Centre for Public Health and Nutrition, University of Sydney </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Parker, F (2009) <i>Advocacy and Learning</i>, GSE 828 Guest Lecture, 2009 </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Rama, I. & Lawrence, P. (2008) <i>Food Miles: A critical evaluation</i>, Economics and Policy Research branch, Victorian Department of Primary Industries, </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.agrifood.info/connections/2008/Food_Miles_Rama_Lawrence.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.agrifood.info/connections/2008/Food_Miles_Rama_Lawrence.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> (accessed November 2009) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Renting, H., Marsden, T. & Banks, J. (2003) Understanding alternative food networks: exploring the role of short food supply chains in rural development, <i>Environment and Planning A, vol. 35</i> </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sage, C. (2007) Trust in markets: Economies of regard and spaces of contestation in alternative food networks, in Cross, J. & Morales, A. (eds) <i>Street Entrepreneurs: People, place and politics in local and global perspective</i>, Routledge, London. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Sinclair, I. Et al. (2004) <i>From the outside looking in: The future of Sydney’s rural land</i>, report prepared for Workshop on the Future of Sydney’s Rural Land, University of Western Sydney. </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.ruralplanning.com.au/library/papers/outsidein.pdf" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.ruralplanning.com.au/library/papers/outsidein.pdf</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> (accessed November 2009) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Transition Sydney. (2009) <i>Community Supported Agriculture- Does it Work?</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.transitionsydney.org.au/tsarticle/community-supported-agriculture-does0it-work" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">www.transitionsydney.org.au/tsarticle/community-supported-agriculture-does0it-work</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">, (accessed November 2009) </span></span></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-26882897414833662792011-07-27T23:27:00.000-07:002011-07-28T00:09:06.059-07:00Food Globalisation<div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">“Globalisation of the food sector is uniquely constrained by nature and culture: food production requires the transformation of natural entities into edible form while the act of eating itself is a profoundly cultural exercise… In other words food chains will never fully escape ecology or culture”. (Morgan et al., 2006) </span></i> </div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> The extent to which nature and culture affect globalisation of food commodities has the potential to vary on a case by case basis. Both the particular type of foodstuff and the country this foodstuff is being produced and consumed in will have a large affect on the conclusion about whether or not a particular food is or is not globalised and how exactly the natural and cultural environments affected this conclusion. As it is impractical to study “all” food commodities it is best to address this question using case studies of a particular food commodity. Both the natural and cultural environments also vary across the world so it is once again more practical to restrict the study to a particular country. As a case study the bottled water industry within Australia provides a unique insight into how the processes of globalisation affects food in Australia and around the world. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"></span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
Bottled drinking water is water filled into hermetically sealed containers of various compositions, forms and capacities that is safe and suitable for direct consumption without necessary further treatment (ICBWA, 2003). As an industry the bottled water market is not a new industry, it grew out of the rise in popularity of visiting mineral springs for hygiene purposes in late eighteenth century Europe, over time the owners of these famous spas began to sell water for use off site. The commercial exploitation began initially in France with one of the world most famous brands Evian beginning sale of its water in 1826. The first water to be sold in a bottle (as prior to this water was mainly sold in stoneware and porcelain jars) was Malvern in England in 1851 (Mascha, 2006). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The initial market for bottling natural mineral waters reached its height in the late nineteenth century and began to fall in the early twentieth century as the need for it decreased, as public water supplies became more consistently healthy and safe to drink due to the development of chlorination as a method of sterilisation. The market for bottled water began to rise again in 1977 with Perrier, a major global brand launching a $5 million marketing campaign in the United States focusing on health and image (Chapelle, 2009). This followed on from marketing strategies by Evian in the 1950s claiming that their water aided lactating mothers by providing important minerals for infants (Mascha, 2006). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The market for bottled water began to grow rapidly in the 1980s and especially the 1990s particularly in developed western countries. The growth in the perception of bottled water being healthier than tap water is believed to be closely linked to this growth (Klessig, 2004). American sales of bottled water increased from 50 million USD in 1960 to 5 Billion USD in 2000 (Mascha, 2005). Between 2000 and 2003 the market continued to grow worldwide shown by a growth in both production volume, from 119,800 million litres to 153,083 million litres and production value increasing from 30,819 million USD to 45,772 million USD (ICBWA, 2009). This massive increase in consumption despite the fact that most developed countries provide high quality drinking water to houses at a fraction of the cost is given as one of the greatest examples of the power of advertising and marketing in the last few decades (H Royte, 2008), the bottled water industry has in fact been seen to have created its own water culture (I Klessig, 2004). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Globalisation as a concept and a buzzword has also increased in usage in the last few decades, despite there being a great deal of confusion and often almost conflicting views on what globalisation is, can and will be. Defined as “the process by which people, their ideas and their activities (economic, cultural and political) in previously relatively separated parts of the world become interconnected, integrated, drawn to the same social space at the same historical time.” (Clark, 2003). One view of what globalisation is, feels that economic globalisation is shown by qualitative changes to Trade, Capital Flow, Production, Movement of People or the Flow of Ideas, Information and Ideology (Fagan, 2009). Compared to other studied and globalising industries the world food industry can only be seen to be unevenly and fragmentally globalising with advances in logistics playing a major role in the extent to which a particular food, especially fresh produce is being seen to globalise (if indeed it is being seen to globalise at all). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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A Globalised Commodity Chain Analysis can be used as a framework to begin to empirically assess economic globalisation of a particular commodity. Divided into four dimensions the globalised food commodity chain begins by assessing the supply chain of a product, then looks at the power relationships between the different agents involved, the institutional frameworks involved and finally the geographic relationships within the globalised food commodity chain (Fagan, 2009). A small flaw in the globalised commodity chain exists as it will only follow a particular good or commodity and the economic interactions of different commodities (particularly those commodities produced by the same company) may go unnoticed. For example if a company is using one product to draw in customers to a more profitable different product in a method similar to loss leading or producing a less profitable product that is seen in a more favourable light by consumers (particularly due to health or ethical reasons). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The globalised commodity chain for bottled water is slightly simpler than most other food commodities due to the simpler production stage and the fact it is much less labour intensive than most other food commodities. The first dimension of a global food commodity chain is the supply chain, which is divided into three separate phases; production, processing and distribution. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The production phase of the supply chain for bottled water is very simple and bottled waters may be produced and labelled as drinking water, glacier water, mineral water, mineralised water, packaged water, purified water, rain water, spring water, table water or as appropriately designated by the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code (ABWI, 2005). The most common designations are spring water, which must come from underground, artesian water from deeper artesian basin and purified water which is distilled water sourced from either an underground spring, or more commonly a local water authority (Choice, 2005). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Processing for bottled water relates to the treatment and bottling of the water. There are a variety of standards that bottled water must meet. Codex Alimentarius, the guiding document for international food trade by the World Health Organisation provides guidelines for standards for bottled water to meet, and in Australia the Food Standards Australia New Zealand sets minimum standards for all types of bottled water under standard 2.6.2 Non-alcoholic Beverages and Brewed Soft Drinks”. There are also voluntary associations that bottlers can join that require members to meet certain regulations. The International Council of Bottled Water Associations (ICBWA) has a model code, however it has no enforcement criteria and associations cannot be audited for compliance (ICBWA, 2003). The Australasian Bottled Water Institute (ABWI) also has a model code based strongly on the ICBWA’s Model code which members must adhere to. This code has obligatory daily, weekly and annual testing by both the water bottler and independent third party auditors. Testing occurs at the originating source, the tankers, the finished product, containers and laboratories. The testing is for a variety of potential contaminants and some of the ABWI Model code standards are stricter than FSANZ standards and cover both health and physical (aesthetic) properties (ABWI, 2005). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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In Australian bottling of the water at the source entitles the water to be labelled as “bottled at source”, otherwise the water is normally tanked to a separate bottling facility, in contrast to Europe that has strict controls requiring all spring water to be bottled at the source. Standards for bottled water are different to tap water in Australia with purity standards being lower for bottled water than tap water in Australia (Choice, 2005). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The distribution phase of the supply chain for bottled water in Australia is the most complicated stage. Bottled water can be broken into two broad industry sectors, the retail sector involving a large variety of sizes, sales outlets and possibly even ingredients. Pack sizes can vary from small (110 ml) to large (10L). This sector has grown quickly at around 10% a year with new products and businesses regularly entering the market. The retail sector is focused on production and distribution of small packs through distributers and wholesalers and a major component of this sector is the ability of the business to market their product successfully, in particular attaining some form of distinction from the other retail bottled water products in the market (ABWI, 2009). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The other sector in bottled water is Home and Office Delivery (HOD), which is very competitive, partially due to the simple capital and equipment requirements needed compared to other beverages. HOD involves large (11L, 15L and 19L) size returnable bottles and dispensers for use in home and office environments. Given the product is being directly supplied to the end consumer there are some very different considerations needed than compared to the retail sector. Location, population density, service philosophy, marketing methods and competition from within the sector and other sectors all have a large affect on the Home and Office Delivery sector (ABWI, 2009). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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An important aspect of the distribution phase for both retail and home and office delivery sectors is the role advertising plays in forming the relationships between the producers and consumers. Both brand profile of the individual products and the image of bottled water as a whole need to be carefully cultivated given the ready availability of clean water to homes in Australia. Advertising can be split into two main focuses, either promoting the water to the new middle class as one of the “designer” products, such as brands of clothing, coffee or water that accompanies a particular lifestyle(Smith, 1996) or the advertising is generally focused on the water being purer and healthier than tap water (Klessig, 2004), often with images of remote exotic landscapes and locations emphasising the distance away from “unclean” civilisation such as FIJI water’s “distance is what makes us so pure and healthy” advertising catch line (Fiji Water Company, 2009). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The second dimension of the Global Commodity Chain Analysis is the power relationships between the various agents involved. In Australia nearly a third of the bottled water sold is either of the Mt Franklin brand or the Frantelle brand (Choice, 2005). Mt Franklin is a brand owned by Coca-Cola Amatil, a global corporation and the fifth largest food company in Australia (Fagan, 2009). Frantelle is a brand owned by P&N Beverages which is the only Australian company to compete in all the non alcoholic and non dairy beverage markets (P&N, 2007). Mt Franklin water is able to use the large Coca-Cola distribution network to enable wide spread of the product while Frantelle dominates in the supermarkets due to the support the wide range of P&N products can provide each other in gaining supermarket shelf space. Small distributers are unable to offer the same price and volume to the supermarket chains that the large distributing companies can (Mascha 2005). The pattern of large beverage companies dominating the retail segment of the bottled water industry is also true for other western developed countries worldwide. Danone and Nestle are the two main companies in the global bottled water market, Danone selling Evian amongst its bottled water brands and Nestle selling Perrier amongst its water brands. Dasani, which is a Coca-Cola brand and Aquafina, a PepsiCo brand also occupy large segments of the American market (Mascha, 2005). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The companies involved in Home and Office Delivery are smaller due to the restrictions they suffer distributing their products, the smaller size and direct to consumer distribution forces these companies to be much more competitive with each other. Suppliers of water and the owners of the spring are limited to selling water in bulk to an existing company or starting their own brand from scratch and being forced to compete in the market if they want to join the bottled water industry (ABWI, 2009). As an industry 90% of the bottled water volume bottlers are represented by the ABWI (Gentile, 2008) and it is in turn a member of the ICBWA. The vast majority of certified bottler members of the ABWI in 2009 were from Australia, 24 of 31 companies use Australian contact addresses. While 24 of the 27 supplier members give Australian contact addresses (ABWI, 2009). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Institutional Frameworks are the third dimension of the Global Commodity Chain Analysis. On a global scale bottled water needs to meet the standards set in Codex Alimentarius and can choose to meet regulations in the ICBWA Model Code (ICBWA, 2003). Within Australian bottled water is required to meet regulations set out by Food Standards Australia New Zealand in the Food Standards Code (ABWI, 2009) these regulations are different to regulations placed on tap water (Choice, 2005). Membership of the ABWI also requires members to adhere to the AWBI Model code which goes further than the FSANZ regulations including a hydrological survey before water extraction. In addition to these regulations each state has different requirements before a permit for commercial water extraction can be issued. The Australasian Bottle Water Institute is also attempting to get uniform source approval processes introduced Australia wide to minimise the advantages and disadvantages there are in starting commercial extraction in different states. Due to the limited nature of water supply in Australia and the many competing uses for it is carefully regulated by government bodies, however bottled water only uses 0.01% of groundwater drawn from aquifers in Australia (Gentile, 08). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The final dimension of a Global Commodity Chain Analysis is the geographic relationships. Particular for food the first aspect here assessed are the food miles travelled due to the lengthening supply chains. Depending on the individual product the food miles travelled by the various bottled waters for sale in Australia can vary greatly. Premium brands such as Evian and Fiji water will travel around the world, often being marketed as coming from somewhere remote, untouched and isolated. This is the main marketing strategy of Fiji water, “untouched by man”, and </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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“Far from pollution. Far from acid rain. Far from industrial waste. There's no question about it: Fiji is far away. But when it comes to drinking water, "remote" happens to be very, very good. Look at it this way. FIJI Water is drawn from an artesian aquifer, located at the very edge of a rainforest, hundreds of kilometres away from the nearest continent. That very distance is part of what makes us so pure and healthy” (Fiji Water, 2009); <br />
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Other brands of water try to minimise the distance their product travels, Mt Franklin promotes itself as “produced in plants across Australia near the water sources so that water is not freighted across the country (or shipped in from overseas like some water). This saves on carbon miles” (Coca-Cola Amatil, 2009). By promoting itself as from a remote untouched location a brand opens itself to criticism for the food miles travelled by the product, yet by trying to have multiple sources a brand loses the opportunity to market itself as premium water from an untouched wilderness area. <br />
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The scale of the market the water operates in is probably related to the size of the company distributing the brand and which market segment it operates in. The retail segment which is dominated by the large beverage companies with their wide distribution network is operating on a national scale or even larger for most brands, with the leading brands Frantelle and Mt Franklin both operating Australia wide and other brands such as Fiji Water, Evian and Perrier being sold globally. Often these large beverage companies are not marketing these bottled waters under their brand name but are using a new brand. Perhaps this is to disconnect their “healthy” water product from their perceived “unhealthy” soft drinks or this could perhaps be an attempt to glocalise their healthier products. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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HOD works on a more local scale as the water needs to be transported regularly to the consumer straight from the bottling location and the bottles then returned to be refilled. This and the size of the companies involved keep this segment to a much smaller scale than the retail segment. The attempt by the supra national, yet Australian dominated ABWI to get uniform source approval processes introduced in Australia can also be seen as an attempt to shift one of the institutional framework approval bodies to a larger scale too. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Another consideration for the Global Commodity Chain Analysis that is fairly unique to water and fits best for consideration into the geographic dimension are the various temporal differences in the product. Fiji water claims to have fallen 450 years ago, while Cloud Juice is rainfall from the Great Southern Ocean, Hawaiian Springs Natural Artesian Water is 30 days old and Wasatch Ice Water is between 18,000 and 22,000 years old. The age of the water does not indicate the quality of the product however as that is related much more to the treatment and care the water receives during the bottling process (Mascha, 2005). However the age of the water may be a strong indication of how sustainable a resource that particular source is, long term siphoning of water from an old source at a rate higher than the sources renewal rate will lead eventually to the exhaustion of that particular water source. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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The qualitative changes that can be observed as occurring in that last few decades in the bottled water industry can be used to decide just how globalised the bottled water industry is. With five areas to explore the nature of globalisation with the starting with trade is the easiest beginning. The trade in spring water is not a new phenomenon, however the scale of the trade is much greater than it ever has been before, at most this is just a quantitative shift in water trade. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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A qualitative shift in the trade of bottled water however can be found in the companies that are doing the trading in the bottled water, this is a change in production. Traditionally bottled water was traded by the owners of the source by companies focused on the selling this product. It is in recent decades that the trade in water became dominated by large beverage companies such as Coca-Cola Amatil and P&N. As a company P&N only began trading in 1992 (P&N, 2007). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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There have been qualitative changes to the flows of money and finance in the bottled water industry linked to the shift in dominance from source based companies to larger beverage companies. One reason for the attraction of large beverage companies to the bottled water industry is by using existing distribution networks to distribute a product that is comparatively cheap with a high public profile, due to how it is perceived as healthier enables them to generate a high cash flow. This is especially useful to any highly leveraged companies. Rather than being the sole source of income bottled water has become one of a series of income streams for companies and can be used as a method of attracting customers to the wider company with the perceived health benefits of the bottled water. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Bottled water has had very little change on the global flows of people either qualitatively or quantitatively. The changes here have been related to bottled water making the transport of safe drinking water into more isolated regions, especially in the developing world more possible. This has minor qualitative effects on both tourism and general health however. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
The major shifts that have occurred with bottled water have occurred in the flows of ideas, information and ideology. The rise in profile of bottled water can be linked closely to the rise of the new middle class and the heavily marketed ideas that bottled water is healthier than tap water. The initial growth in the bottled water industry occurred as bottled water was perceived to have almost medicinal benefits, but the industry went into decline after the development of chlorination processes to provide clean healthy water to people’s homes. Perrier began the campaign for bottled water to become a staple of healthy living in the late 1970s. This campaign managed to make bottled water a “lifestyle defining product” for the newly emerging consumer group, the yuppies (Chappelle, 2009). Concerns over the quality of drinking water also emerged in Australia with the cryptosporidium and giardia scare in Sydney in 1998 giving much weight to the view bottled water is healthier, despite more lenient regulations compared to tap water (Choice, 2005). Convenience is also seen as benefit of bottled water, but in reality bottled water has become a status item and security blanket at the same time. Rather than use “dirty” public facilities consumers keep a bottle of water with them at all times, described as a form of “hyperindividualism” where people are moving away from a common purpose towards more personal enhancement (Royte, 2008). </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
The extent to which nature and culture has affected how globalised the bottled water industry is unique compared to other food industries as nature has a much reduced ability to restrict water to particular environments. As water is not an organic product, it does not “grow” and therefore it is not restricted to particular climates or soil types. Geology has an affect on the suitability and size of the aquifers that are the source of spring and mineral water but then main affect of nature on the globalisation of water is in fact how “natural” the source location is perceived to be by the consumer, which is far more related to the consumers culture than to the natural environment. Water that can market itself as being from remote, untouched and purer locations will generally be perceived to be healthier than other waters, regardless of the actual natural environments involved. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Culture has by far a more important effect on the extent to which globalisation has occurred in the bottled water industry. The initial rise and fall in the industry are linked to cultural factors. Bottled water was initially perceived correctly as being healthier for people in the 19th century but with the development of reliable clean water being delivered to people’s houses the bottled water industry started to decline as it was no longer a healthier option. In recent years the growth of the new middle class and the cultural changes associated with this consumer group has linked closely with the recent rapid re expansion of the bottled water industry. This growth has been directly linked to marketing and advertising campaigns aimed at this new consumer group pushing bottled water as a more convenient, healthy and safe option than the cheaper widely available tap water provided to consumer’s houses. </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
<u><b>References </b></u></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Australasian Bottled Water Institute (2005) <i>Australasian Bottled Water Institute Inc Model Code</i> available at <a href="http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWIModelCode_Mar06.pdf">http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWIModelCode_Mar06.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
Australasian Bottled Water Institute (2009) <i>A Guide for entry into the Bottled Water Industry</i> available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_Guide_for_Industy.pdf">http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_Guide_for_Industy.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
Australasian Bottled Water Institute (2009) <i>AWBI Bottler Members as of 22 June 2009</i> available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_BottlerMembers_List_Jun09.pdf">http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_BottlerMembers_List_Jun09.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
Australasian Bottled Water Institute (2009) <i>AWBI Supplier Members as of 22 June 200</i>9 available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_SupplierMembers_List_Jun09.pdf">http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/ABWI_SupplierMembers_List_Jun09.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
Chapelle, F.H. (2009) <i>A brief history of bottled water in America</i>. Available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.greatlakeslaw.org/blog/2009/03/a-brief-history-of-bottled-water-in-america.html">http://www.greatlakeslaw.org/blog/2009/03/a-brief-history-of-bottled-water-in-america.html</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
Choice (2005) A triumph of marketing, <i>Choice Magazine, July 2005</i>. Available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.choiceextra.com.au/images/pdfs/0507Bottled%20Water.pdf">http://www.choiceextra.com.au/images/pdfs/0507Bottled%20Water.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
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Clark, A.N. (2003) <i>The penguin dictionary of geography</i>, Penguin Books, London </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Coca-Cola Amatil (2009) <i>Website</i> available at http://www.mountfranklinwater.com.au/faqs.aspx accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Fagan, R. (2009) <i>Lecture Notes HGEO 809</i> Macquarie University </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Fiji Water Company 2009 <i>Website</i> available at http://www.fijiwater.com.au/Default.aspx accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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Gentile, T. (2008) Bottled Water- an industry perspective. <i>Food Australia 60 (5) May 2008</i> available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/FoodAustralia_may08_Gentile.pdf">http://www.australianbeverages.org/lib/pdf/FoodAustralia_may08_Gentile.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
<br />
International Council of Bottled Water Associations (2003) <i>ICBWA Model Code</i> Available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.icbwa.org/ICBWA_Mode_Code_Sept-27-2004.pdf%20accessed%20September%202009">http://www.icbwa.org/ICBWA_Mode_Code_Sept-27-2004.pdf accessed September 2009</a></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
International Council of Bottled Water Associations (2009) <i>Global Bottled Water Statistics</i> available at </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.icbwa.org/2000-2003_Zenith_and_Beverage_Marketing_Stats.pdf">http://www.icbwa.org/2000-2003_Zenith_and_Beverage_Marketing_Stats.pdf</a> accessed September 2009 <br />
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Klessig, L. (2004) <i>Water is Life- Bottled Water Industry</i>. Available at http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/klessill/ accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
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P&N (2009) <i>Website</i> available at http://www.pnbeverages.com.au/pages/home.html accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Mascha, M. (2005) <i>The Age of Water- How Old is your Water</i>? Available at http://www.finewaters.com/Bottled_Water_Etiquette/Bottled_Water_History/The_Age_of_Water_How_Old_is_Your_Water.asp</span> <span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.finewaters.com/Newsletter/The_Water_Connoisseur/The_Age_of_Water_How_Old_is_Your_Water.asp%20accessed%20September%202009"> accessed September 2009</a></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Mascha, M. (2005) <i>Bottled Water Today</i>. Available at http://www.finewaters.com/Bottled_Water_Etiquette/Bottled_Water_History/Bottled_Water_Today.asp accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Mascha, M. (2006) <i>Short History of Bottled Water</i>. Available at http://www.finewaters.com/Bottled_Water_Etiquette/Bottled_Water_History/Short_History_of_Bottled_Water.asp Accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Royte, E. (2008) Bottlemania: <i>How Water Went on Sale and Why We Bought It</i>, Bloomsbury. Available at http://www.alternet.org/water/85859/ accessed September 2009 </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Smith, M.D. (1996) The empire filters back: consumption, production, and the politics of Starbucks coffee" <i>Urban Geography, 17:6</i> </span> </div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-71817213723715049712011-07-27T23:16:00.000-07:002011-07-27T23:16:26.570-07:00Control of Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Australia<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-AU</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Tomas Austin introduced rabbits to Australia in 1859 for sport hunting. With assistance from people they had reached the Queensland border by 1886 and rabbits occupied their current range by 1910. By 1880 rabbits were a large enough pest that they were declared illegal and feral cats were introduced to prey on them (Young, 2000). Today Australia’s 200 million rabbits occupy almost all terrestrial environments south of the Tropic of Capricorn with suitable soil (Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> One of the reasons rabbits are such a threatening species is due to their breeding patterns. Female rabbits become sexually mature at three to four months old and can produce a litter comprising of four or five young every month (Department of Environment and Heritage, 2004). This means that if no other factors apply (which is not true) a female rabbit can potentially have 45 offspring within a year of it birth. Theoretically rabbit populations can have a ten-fold increase in six months. Predation, disease and weather conditions can reduce rabbit’s rates of increase but an increase of eight to ten-fold in one breeding season is common (CSIRO, date unknown). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Rabbits were not a native species to England either. Rabbits are indigenous to the plains of Spain and Northern Africa. England’s earliest documented rabbit remains come from the kitchen midden of a castle at Essex and are dated to be from the late twelfth or early thirteenth century. Rabbits from King Henry (the third’s) royal park were given as gifts in 1235 and by 1257 people were complaining about the destruction caused by the rabbits that (inevitably) escaped (Low, 1999). Complaints made about the destructive nature of rabbits date back even longer than that also. Around 50 BC the inhabitants of the Islands of Majorca and Minorca sent a deputation to the Romans asking for new lands to be given to them as they were being driven out of their country by rabbits (CSIRO, date unknown). Around the same time in the Balearic Islands (that are different series of islands to Majorca and Minorca) inhabitants sent a petition to the Roman emperor asking for military aid against pest rabbits (Low, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Rabbits are more of a problem in grazing areas rather than cropping areas as cultivation disturbs their warrens. Rabbits are considered to be one of the most destructive species in Australia because they compete with native species for food and shelter and can be linked with the decline of many native species, especially small ground dwelling mammals. When native and cultivated areas are overgrazed they lose their plant cover and there is a subsequent increase in erosion and other land management problems (DEH, 2004). Economic damage by wild rabbits (including agricultural production losses and cost of control) is estimated to be approximately $600 million dollars annually (CSIRO, year unknown). There is also accumulated environmental damage that cannot be calculated. Specific examples of how rabbits have affected native animals can be shown with the decline in wombat numbers in the South East of Australia after rabbits moved into the area and the bilby (rabbit eared bandicoot) that in ten years went from common to only found in areas without rabbits. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Complete removal of rabbits from Australia is not possible using the techniques available today. Except for the removal of the Black Striped Mussel from Darwin Marina in 1999 no terrestrial animal has been eradicated from the mainland of Australia (DEH, 2004). The current objective is to reduce damage caused by pest species in the most cost effective manner (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999), this is why the term rabbit control is used and not rabbit eradication. However the eradication of small newly established populations of rabbits or populations from small islands has been accomplished. An example of this is Cabbage Tree Island where rabbits were eradicated to aid in the protection of the endangered Gould’s Petrel. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The controls on rabbit populations can be divided into natural and human implemented ones. Natural controls on rabbit populations are parasites, climatic conditions and predators. Obviously these natural controls have been unable to keep rabbit numbers down over the years. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The human implemented controls of rabbit numbers are subsequently divided into mechanical, chemical and biological control methods. Mechanical controls are the least effective at reducing rabbit populations on a large scale and are used as a follow up method to the larger scale of biological and chemical controls. Fences can be used to either exclude the rabbits, which is expensive and only possible with regular maintenance or they can be temporary to prevent access to a food source so as to make baits more attractive (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). Another problem with fencing is it will also interfere with other species movements. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Shooting is considered a humane way of killing rabbits by the Biodiversity Group of Environment Australia (1999) despite the opposition to the shooting and hunting of animals by many groups. Shooting however is not an effective method for reducing rabbit populations, as it becomes far more difficult when the population is reduced to a low density. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Trapping is a method that is not likely to result in any long-term reduction in rabbit numbers, as it is extremely difficult to conduct a trapping operation on the scale that would be needed to reduce population numbers. The steel-jawed leg-hold traps are still permitted in some areas of Australia, despite the fact they are considered inhume due to the pain and suffering the animal is subjected to. Barrel and soft catch traps are the humane method when trapping is appropriate (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The most effective mechanical control of rabbit numbers is harbour destruction, although like other mechanical controls this is most effective as a follow up to a chemical or biological control program to prevent rabbit numbers increasing again. “Destroying rabbits without destroying their homes or ‘harbours’ often gives short-term control. In many cases it is little better than a harvesting operation”. The preferred method of harbour destruction is ripping although in some situations where ripping in not possible explosives may be used (CSIRO, date unknown). If rabbits are using surface refugia either in addition to or in place of warrens harbour control is not possible. This is due to the fact that removal of the shrub layer and other possible surface harbours are also habitat for almost all other ground dwelling animal species (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). According to the Biodiversity Group of Environment Australia 1999 humaneness of ripping depends on the population density and warren depth. If the entire warren is destroyed by the ripper the rabbit is said to suffer a “humane” death of quick asphyxiation. If the warren is deeper then the ripper’s tines the rabbit will be left to die “less humanely” of slow suffocation or starvation. Dogs are also often used to drive the rabbits into their warren to take shelter before it is destroyed. This reduces the number of rabbits that survive and can therefore reopen warrens. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Chemical control refers to the different methods for poisoning rabbits. Fumigation is performed in two different ways, pressure fumigation and diffusion fumigation. Pressure fumigation seals all burrow entrances and pumps a fumigant mixture of thick smoke, carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide and a poison gas into the warren. This is a slow method only suitable for small areas. Diffusion fumigation places a liquid or pellet that diffuses into the fumigant gas as deep into the warren as possible. Toxins used as fumigants include chloropicrin, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, calcium cyanide and phosphine (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). The most common toxin used is chloropicrin despite it being seen as less humane then phosphine. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> In straight poisoning campaigns there are two methods used, poison baits and the “tarbaby” technique. The most common poison used in Australia is sodium monofluoroacetate, more commonly known as 1080, this poison is also used for fox and feral pig baiting. 1080 occurs naturally in native pea bushes in Western Australia and as a consequence many native species in Western Australia have developed a greater tolerance to this toxin then introduced animals, and this reduces the risk to non-target species in Western Australia (DEH, 2004). The reason 1080 is used is because of its relative cheapness and effectiveness on the target species. It also rapidly degrades in the field and is not cumulative in animals that ingest a sub lethal dose. Its mortality rate is normally in excess of 90% and when combined with a harbour destruction program it normally results in a long lasting control. The disadvantages to 1080 are that there is no antidote, it is highly toxic to livestock and it is soluble in water, meaning that it can leach from the baits in damp environments. However after leaching it is quickly broken down by soil microorganisms. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The other poison commonly used is the anticoagulant pindone. This toxin is less toxic to live stock and domestic animals and there is an available antidote. Pindone however is slow acting and cumulative, this means individuals are more likely to ingest a lethal dose before developing an aversion to the bait, however this can also lead to bioaccumulation of this toxin into higher trophic order predators such as birds of prey. This also increases the time that non-target species are at risk. This toxin is relatively expensive and persists in the environment for up to a year and marsupials are also highly sensitive to it (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). Pindone is mainly used in urban areas where there is a risk of accidental poisoning to humans or animal companions is greatest. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Some groups debate the humaneness of poisoning by 1080 and pindone. Pindone is seen as less humane then 1080 as it causes extreme pain when it causes bleeding in the joints. There is apparently little evidence that 1080 causes prolonged suffering. When humans have ingested a sub-lethal dose of 1080 the majority report there being no pain. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The tarbaby technique is more target specific than poison baiting but it is unsuitable to light sandy soils (that rabbits often favour) and 1080 is precluded from this technique due to the concentration required. This means that a less humane toxin like pindone will be required (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Biological control is the introduction of a living organism to control the population of another organism. It could be the introduction of a predator (in the rabbits case the unsuccessful introduction of cats) or a pathogen (such as myxomatosis or rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD) in the case of rabbits). Biological controls of rabbits are the main method used for controlling numbers. Mechanical and chemical controls are mainly used as follow up campaigns. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Myxomatosis was released in Australia in 1950 and it is believed that more than 95% of rabbits in southern Australia died within six months. Myxomatosis is spread by blood-sucking insect vectors and as a consequence is more prevalent in humid areas then arid areas. Rabbit numbers dropped again in 1969 when the CSIRO introduced the European rabbit flea to be a new vector (Young, 2000). Rabbits are slowly beginning to develop a resistance to this virus however and now the field strain of this virus normally has a mortality rate of 40-90% (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">RCD was first reported in rabbit populations in China in 1984. In 1991 the CSIRO imported the disease and began laboratory tests on its effect on wild rabbits and a host of other non-target species. Field investigation began in March 1995 on Wardang Island and the virus escaped to the mainland in October 1995, probably due to windborne vectors. It was accepted as a biological control by the relevant government bodies in 1996. RCD is believed to be more effective in arid areas than humid ones with a reduction rate of between 65% to >95% (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999 and CSIRO, date unknown). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">More people than those that challenge the other methods have challenged the humanness of these two diseases. This is probably due to the fact that in theory RCD and myxomatosis threaten people’s pet rabbits as well as the wild pest populations. The majority of people opposed to biological control of rabbits seem to be opposed to the perceived threat to their pet animal rather then from an animal rights point of view. As a result of this many of the arguments against these diseases are highly emotive and when combined with inaccurate facts mean that their validity can be questioned. An example of this is an anti-RCD group that claims rabbits with RCD suffer both depression and sadness, a lack of coordination and anorexia. This is despite the fact that rabbits generally die of RCD within 36 hours of gestation. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The humaneness of myxomatosis is a little easier to challenge. This is because the disease can be acute or chronic (as opposed to RCD which currently only has an acute form) and in its chronic form can cause prolonged suffering. Also myxomatosis is a pox disease that has visual effects on the rabbit, while RCD shows no external symptoms. This may lead to more opposition to myxomatosis than RCD, as it “looks” worse. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">An important point to note about both RCD and myxomatosis is that like all biological controls humans now no longer have any control over them. These diseases are breaking out in the wild without assistance (although they are regularly spread deliberately). Even if it was decided that our previous decisions about biological control of rabbits were incorrect and that all possible efforts to prevent the disease from spreading should be made humans have no way to stop the spread of this disease. There are vaccinations in existence for both myxomatosis and RCD but for these to take effect in the wild every wild rabbit would need to be caught and inoculated. If it were possible to catch every single wild rabbit there would be no rabbit problem in Australia as every rabbit could be caught and sterilised. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">A third form of biological control is immunocontraception. This is a fertility control agent that uses a viral vector (in the case of rabbits a modified version of the myxoma virus). This is a method considered a desirable and humane way to control pest species by animal welfare groups. This method does have it drawbacks however. The main drawback being that it’s only in the experimental phase of development. The other problem is that for this method 60 to 80% of female rabbits would need to be infected to achieve a reduction in rabbit numbers. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Arguments about whether it is ethical to ‘tamper’ with a species ability to reproduce like that can be made. However the question that needs to be asked is if it is an infringement on an individual animals right to be prevented from reproducing surely it is a greater infringement on the animal to kill it outright. Humans will be killing rabbits to control their numbers if there is no alternative so even if immunocontraception is an infringement on rabbit’s rights surely the lesser of two evils (sterilisation compared to death) is the desirable option. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There are commercial interests in the wild rabbit population. Prior to the introduction of myxomatosis there was a substantial wild rabbit harvesting industry but this industry collapsed after the diseases introduction. The current wild rabbit commercial industry uses field shot animals to supply game and pet meat markets and skins mainly used in the felt hat industry. The annual value of wild rabbit products was estimated to be $9 million in 1991-92 with an additional $2.5 million invested in capital equipment. Added to the fact that the commercial use of wild rabbits are too small and localised to aid the conservation movement it becomes clear that the value of the commercial rabbit industry is trivial when compared to the costs of wild rabbits on agriculture and the environment (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There is also the possibility of impact on non-target species by a rabbit control campaign. There could be direct or indirect impacts. Direct impacts are when the technique used kills other animals than just the rabbits, indirect impacts are were the reduction in rabbit numbers affects another species. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">It has been argued that a reduction in rabbit numbers could threaten native species as the rabbits predators (normally foxes and feral cats, which are other pest species in Australia) would have to change there prey species from the abundant rabbit population to threatened native species. However it is advised that if this situation has a possibility of occurring an integrated campaign is conducted targeting not only the rabbits but their predators also (Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). Also if as is more then likely true one of the main reasons for the species being threatened is that it is being out competed by rabbits the reduction in rabbit numbers may allow that species to re-establish its numbers so it is less susceptible to predator pressure. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Rabbit reduction is already affecting the populations of Australia’s birds of prey. Young rabbits provide 60-90% of the diet of birds of prey around Mildura. Since the introduction of RCD bird of prey populations have been suffering (Low, 1999). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">It has been noted that many indigenous people are opposed to any control program that doesn’t make use of the destroyed animals (Rose, 1995 in Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999). This is because they view exotic species having just as much right to inhabit the land as native fauna. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">From an animal rights point of view it is hard to find an argument against rabbit control. This is because the rights of the individual rabbit or rabbit species need to be balanced against the rights of all the individuals and collective totals of the other species that are threatened by rabbits. Also the rabbit species is not threatened with extinction by these control measures (no control is that effective) so the protection of the species is not an issue. This leaves the choice between reducing the population of one species or the eventual extinction of many other species. To someone holding the animal welfare viewpoint the lesser of two evils would have to be a reduction to rabbit numbers. That of course only applies is if all species are viewed as equal (as animal welfare activists claim to believe). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The viewpoint that rabbit control is a violation of the individual rabbits rights is slightly more persuasive than a total species right viewpoint. From this viewpoint it comes down to the individual rabbits right not to suffer. This argument works better when applied to certain control methods then others (for example anticoagulant poisons and myxomatosis compared to 1080 poisoning and RCD). Obviously the rabbit has the right not to suffer to a certain extent or there wouldn’t be the desire in people to develop more humane methods of control. If they didn’t have this right the focus would be on developing more effective methods without giving any consideration to rabbits suffering. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This right not to suffer will also become a weaker argument if the CSIRO does achieve it aim of developing a method for immunocontraception of rabbits. Even if the individual rabbit is determined to have a right to reproduce the violation of this right is a lesser violation of its right to live and its right not to suffer. For surely if an individual has the right to reproduce it would have a right to live without suffering that would be even higher valued. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Finally it must be noted that if rabbits are left alone without any methods of population control they will end up on a path to self-destruction. This was shown in 1990-91 along the dingo fence in South Australia. Rabbits ate the ground bare in a strip 200km long and several km wide, subsequently they ended up dying by the thousands of heat stress, starvation and disease (Young, 2000). Surely starvation and heat stress are two ways to die that cause more suffering then many of the methods of control used by humans. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">All of the factors mean that although the methods used for rabbit control can be questioned ethically. Rabbit population control is a necessary evil. Care is taken to minimise the suffering of rabbits and a lesser of two evils approach is often taken. Also newer and more humane methods are still being developed, there is no end in sight to this ethical or environmental problem but progress is constantly being made. On an ethical front it comes down to the individual rabbits right not to suffer and die (as there is no threat to the species) compared to the protection to many native species and the $600 million that rabbits cost Australia annually. This is the driving force behind the development of more humane population control methods, the conventional view is the individual rabbits right not to suffer and die is obviously not equal to $600 million and the survival of multiple native species. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></b></u></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2001. <i>Australian State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO publishing on behalf of the Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Author Unknown, <i>Myxomatosis of rabbits- Resources</i> (an anti-myxomatosis website) available at </span><a href="http://members.iinet.au/%7Erabbit/intervet.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://members.iinet.au/~rabbit/intervet.htm</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed June 2004 </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Author Unknown, <i>Rabbit Calicivirus Frequently Asked Questions</i> (an anti-rabbit calicivirus disease website) available at </span><a href="http://members.iinet.au/%7Erabbit/rcdfaq.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://members.iinet.au/~rabbit/rcdfaq.htm</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed June 2004 </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">CSIRO, Date Unknown, <i>Rabbit Control and Rabbit Calicivirus Disease: A field handbook for land managers in Australia</i>. Available at </span><a href="http://csiro.au/communication/rabbits/rcd_book.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://csiro.au/communication/rabbits/rcd_book.htm</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed June 2004 </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Low, T., 1999, <i>Feral Future: The untold story of Australia’s exotic invaders</i>, Penguin Books, Ringwood </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Young, A., 2000, <i>Environmental Change in Australia since 1788, 2nd ed.</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Biodiversity Group Environment Australia, 1999, <i>Threat abatement plan for competition and land degradation by feral rabbits</i>, available at </span><a href="http://deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/tap/rabbits/4.html" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/tap/rabbits/4.html</a><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> last accessed June 2004 </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></span><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Department of Environment and Heritage, 2004, <i>Feral Animals in Australia</i>, available at <a href="http://deh.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/ferals/index.html">http://deh.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/ferals/index.html</a> last accessed June 2004</span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-9788093962351292122011-07-27T23:10:00.000-07:002011-07-27T23:10:03.098-07:00Critical Literature Review- Environmental Ethics<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-AU</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><i><b>Rolston, H. (1981) Values in Nature. Environmental Ethics 3, 113-128. </b></i></u><br />
<br />
This paper by Holmes Rolston is about the different ways value can be assigned to nature and natural ecosystems. From the beginning Rolston encounters difficulties, because as he says “value is the generis noun for any positive predicate” and “science only works with neutral descriptive predicates”. Rolston proposes that the examined values arise in association with science and that these values are based on physical and biological properties and processes discovered by science. This would mean the ‘neutral’ nature of science is being used to determine the ‘positive’ values, which seems to be a contradiction. <br />
<br />
Rolston uses ten categories to show the different ways that we could value nature. These are:</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<b>Economic Value </b> </span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">For this category he shows how the prevailing view is the labour used on the environment is what gives it its economic value, not nature itself. He proposes that we should look at nature as having potential economic value that could arise in the future. This would however be based on pure speculation and if followed to it’s full extent would paralyse us from doing anything that could damage nature and potentially have a negative effect in the future, or ignore the future altogether and do whatever we want to nature as no matter what we do it will have a negative effect. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Life Support Value</b> <br />
The claim the Earth is valuable because it keeps us alive is made, but this only follows if we value human life. The statement that we are bound to nature with no hope for release through our arts (and presumably technology) is also made. No justification is given for this statement it is assumed to be an accepted fact. Rolston also asks the question “do we not value Earth because it is valuable, and not the other way around?” The other way around would be the Earth is valuable because we value it. Rolston gives no answer to this question he just poses more questions. </span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<b>Recreational Value </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">This category is where Rolston first mentions the intrinsic value of nature. Comparing the recreational enjoyment of nature to the enjoyment of music and art. Rolston makes the assumption that music and art have an intrinsic value to people (which is an assumption that can be questioned) and that nature can be and is enjoyed in the same way. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Scientific Value</b> <br />
Science is given an intrinsic value by Rolston, like music and art. He then claims that the study of a worthless (and therefore presumably valueless) thing can be intrinsically valuable. According to his argument it follows that if natural science is intrinsically valuable science is intrinsically valuable. If natural science isn’t intrinsically valuable (and he offers no justification as to why this is so) his own argument (if correct) would show that natural science has no value. The argument that the study of a valueless thing has no value can also be challenged. The Ebola or Aids viruses have no value to humans (as value is a human concept) yet the study of these viruses with the aim of developing a cure surely has huge value to humans (if human life is taken to have value). <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Aesthetic Value</b> <br />
This approach to valuing nature is one that Rolston claims people have difficulty justifying verbally. He seems to be stating that this is the appreciation of nature’s ideals and their beauty. He gives no real reason as to why people value nature this way, but perhaps this is due to his own admission that it is so hard to verbalise? <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Life Value </span></b></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">It is argued by Rolston that if we grant human life value (an assumption) all other life must have at least so value as we are all evolutionarily related. He also argues that mind is the most interesting and rare thing in the universe (that humans know of) and that life is the second most interesting and rare thing in the universe. However rarity and interest do not automatically equal value. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Diversity and Unity Value </b><br />
For this approach Rolston claims that nature’s diversity and unity are valuable because these factors are what lead to the development of our minds. This is because “a complex mind evolves in order to deal with a diverse world, yet one through which unifying relationships run.” First of all Rolston does not specify what he means by a complex mind it could mean solely human’s minds, it could mean all animals minds or somewhere between these two. Are all minds valuable or just human ones? This is important because all animals could presumably recognise that nature is different but only humans presumably are able to recognise the laws of science that underlie natures complexity. If all minds are considered complex and valuable it is the diversity of nature that adds value according to the statement. If only human minds are complex and valuable it is the unifying relationships that underpin nature that are valuable. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Stability and Spontaneity Values </span></b></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Stability refers to the reliability of nature’s basic processes that have led to the formulation to many of science’s basic laws. Rolston claims some order supports value and this should be a basic value. If it is only some order that supports value how do we determine between order that is valuable and order that (presumably) isn’t valuable? <br />
<br />
The spontaneity of nature Rolston views as a form of freedom and he poses the question that why freedom is valued for humans but not for natural species to whom we are evolutionarily connected. The question if nature is ‘free’ in the same sense as humans are should be posed. Are plants free? Or species? <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Dialectical Value </span></b></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Rolston feels that if it weren’t for human conflict with nature human evolution (both physically and culturally) would have stagnated. If nature was to hostile it would kill us, but if it were too forgiving we would stagnate, in a sense nature could be considered ‘just right’. If this were true however would we realise and object. Surely if we stagnated or were killed we wouldn’t realise as we have either stagnated intellectually or are dead. If you only value it after it has happened to you is this a true value? <br />
<br />
<b>Sacramental Value </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">The value here is nature’s stimulation of the mind that must be an intrinsic value according to Rolston. If however the mind can be stimulated by something other then nature the intrinsic value of nature due to it’s intellectual stimulation becomes separated and it is the intellectual stimulation that gains the value, with nature just enhancing it. <br />
<br />
The most common thrust of argument from Rolston throughout the paper is that nature is valuable because it enabled humans to develop evolutionarily, socially and culturally to the stage we are at today. However if we had never developed to this stage would we value getting to this stage? </span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
<u><i><b>Gunn, A.S., (1980) Why Should We Care About Rare Species? Environmental Ethics 3, 17-37. </b></i></u></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><br />
<br />
Alastair Gunn aims in this paper to find a way to morally justify the (assumed) feeling that people have that it is wrong to exterminate species and further to why we feel that rare species should be further protected then other species. Gunn claims that rare species are the subject of increasing public interest but that this interest may only be focused on the beautiful spectacular species. He states that this “is true, but it is not clear what follows”. He chooses to ignore this statement because it would accept speciesist values uncritically (and he obviously has no wish to do this). <br />
<br />
Gunn claims that the wholesale slaughter of entire species by human actions bears no resemblance to the natural processes of speciation, evolution and natural selection. If this is true then the ‘Big 5’ mass extinctions (where over fifty percent of the worlds species died out) of history also bear no resemblance to natural processes. This is not to say that the slaughter of species by humans is a natural process (illustrated by Gunn with the example of the passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius) or that the mass extinctions were unnatural (they all coincide with huge scale environmental or geological changes) but that there are precedents for a large-scale extinction of species occurring throughout history. Indeed over 99% of the species that have existed on Earth to date are extinct. “As a statistician might say, to a first approximation, all species (on Earth) are extinct” (Prothero, 2004). <br />
<br />
The majority of Gunn’s paper is taken up with a critique of other approaches to valuing rare species. The first approach critiqued being rights. <br />
Rights <br />
<br />
There are many assumptions made for this approach, first off that animals have rights, that included in these rights is a right to life and that there is a difference between the rights of and individual and the rights of a species. <br />
<br />
An argument that species could be assigned rights in a similar sense to corporations. This approach works on the surface but when you consider that the purpose of these legal entities is to be a means to an end and have no value. That would mean this approach doesn’t work as it gives no value to the species, which would have been the whole purpose of giving them legal standing in this manner. <br />
<br />
Extermination of a species was also shown not to be a violation of the rights of the individuals of the species as it would be possible to make all individuals infertile but protected till they die of old age thus exterminating the species but not violating individual rights. Gunn also states that if this occurred naturally (or all individuals where of the one sex) there is no possible step we could take to save the species. However there is a difference between a species naturally becoming infertile and deliberately being tampered with to exterminate them. Perhaps individuals could be considered to have the right to avoid being ‘tampered’ with. Although if this right were applied to all species it would mean many of our attempts to control ‘pest’ species would have to change. <br />
<br />
Gunn then points out the gestalt nature of species rights. He illustrates this by showing how killing the 50 last individuals of a species seems to be a greater wrong then killing 50 individuals of a species that has 100,000 individuals. One approach he doesn’t look at however is that in the first example from above you are killing 100% of the species but in the second approach you are killing 0.05% of the species. Perhaps by reflecting on individuals as a percentage of their species you could explain how individuals of a rare species tend to have special rights. Gunn show that unless rare species have special rights there is no way that animals right can lead us to specially protecting rare species. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Speciesist Account </b><br />
Gunn feels this argument is ultimately flawed, as it doesn’t take into account that people tend to feel that it is morally wrong to exterminate a species. Speciesist arguments are limited to showing the benefits of preservation or the loss to humans for failing to preserve a species. <br />
<br />
Gunn rightly points out that many of the speciesist arguments are flawed by the assumption that technology is static. The more persuasive argument he also reviews is that while the species may not be valuable now it may have value in the future. He dismisses this argument as we do not know anything about the future and cannot assume anything about it, indeed it is just as likely that the species may prove to be harmful to future generations as it will prove to be useful. <br />
<br />
When considering recreational, aesthetic and scientific values in a utilitarian speciesist sense many competing factors need to be added together and this means that you cannot always guarantee that extermination is wrong and therefore this approach cannot be relied upon to bring the desired results. <br />
<br />
The speciesist approach as argued by Gunn seems to give reasons to preserve particular species. It works on a species to species basis but not as blanket protection for all species, which is the point, he is trying to make. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Rarity and Value </b><br />
Rarity enhances value, it doesn’t create value is Gunn’s main argument against this approach. Rare species are then compared to special individuals whom are assigned special rights but explains this away as everyone has the right to compete but not succeed. He once again falls back on his argument that a species is a gestalt of the individuals comprising it. <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Gunn’s Solution </b><br />
Gunn proposes that there is only one way in which we can justify enhanced value to rare species and that is to follow a new environmental ethic. He feels that there is something perfect about a self-renewing ecosystem and that therefore exterminating some part of this is morally wrong. This approach however doesn’t take into account that ecosystems are not static but exist in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Species are not co-existing peacefully but competing against each other in the environment. Ecosystems don’t stay the same over time as new species migrate to the area or on a longer timescale as environmental changes occur. <br />
<br />
Extinction (the ultimate removal of a species from the ecosystem) also occurs in nature. Extinction is a natural part of evolution and natural selection and in fact if it weren’t for extinction’s the “perfect” ecosystem we see today would never have evolved. Surely some of the extinctions seen in prehistory were the result of one species out competing another species and forcing it to extinction, was this wrong? If only humans are considered to be moral agents was it wrong when humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) out competed and forced Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) to extinction? <br />
<br />
Two even larger problems exist in Gunn’s solution, which is otherwise very hard to find fault with. The first is that it would require a major shift in the way that the majority of the western world thinks. Surely this would be at least as difficult to achieve as finding reason for protecting rare species under the current system. The second problem is “(his theory) is really no answer to the person who cannot see why it is better to have a natural ecosystem then an airport”. Would this mean that he is preaching to the converted? Isn’t the purpose of his paper to show people who don’t value rare species why they should? <br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Reference </b></u><br />
<br />
Prothero, D. (2004) <i>Bringing Fossils to Life: an introduction to palaeobiology (2nd ed.)</i> McGraw Hill, Sydney</span></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-23267751446064678662011-07-27T22:59:00.000-07:002011-07-27T22:59:25.801-07:00Salinity in Australia<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Salinity is one of the most serious land degradation problems facing Australia today. There are three forms of salinity that are of concern in Australia, Dryland salinity, Irrigation (wetland) salinity and increasing salinity in Australia’s waterways. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Dryland salinity normally occurs when deep rooted (normally native) vegetation is removed and replaced by shallower rooted crops and pasture. There is a lower evapotranspiration rate in these communities than the deeper-rooted communities and this allows the water to move more freely through the soil mobilising the stored salts and raising the groundwater closer to the soil surface. This then results in saline seepage (Young, 2000). The deposited salts can also then find their way into waterways and have an affect on water salinity also. Dryland Salinity is a large problem in South West Western Australia and the lower reaches of the Murray-Darling River system. In 1998-2000 approximately 5,706,000 ha in Australia had a high risk of developing a dryland salinity problem (See Figure One) and there was 2.5-3 million ha already affected, this was estimated to expand to 17,000,000 ha by 2050 (State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Figure One (not included here)- Areas at high risk of Dryland salinity by 2050 due to high water tables (State of the Environment, 2001) </span></span></i></div><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">It was concluded by the State of the Environment Report (2001) that Australia has a continuing and increasing dryland salinity problem because of the scale of land use changes needed, the lag time between implementation and resulting environmental change, and the lack of viable options for farmers to implement recommended land use change. </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Irrigation salinity is a build up of salts at or near the surface of the soil in irrigated areas. The build up is caused by over applying irrigation water in areas without adequate drainage at the base of their soil profile. As the water table is mobilised and begins to rise it mobilises the soluble salts, the plants roots become water logged and as the water is deposited on the surface it evaporates leaving its salt content behind. This problem can combine with saltwater intrusion when the salty water drains into freshwater streams. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This problem occurs in many parts of the world but is a greater issue in Australia as the soils naturally have a higher salt content (Aplin, 2002). This form of salinity is less widespread than dryland salinity as the total area of land affected by dryland salinity is double that of irrigation salinity (Young, 2000). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Irrigation salinity can be used as an example of how a lack of knowledge and an over response to a problem in lieu of the knowledge can have severe consequences for the environment. In this case the over reaction to the perceived lack of water has led to over irrigation and then the salinity problem. It also illustrates a short-term response to land management and economic issues that should not have occurred (Aplin, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Saltwater intrusion is a form of water salinity, it occurs along the coast where seawater replaces over exploited groundwater in aquifer systems. The increasing salinity of Australia’s waterways is one of the most significant threats to aquatic health and irrigation (State of the Environment, 2001). There are large areas of South West Western Australia and the lower reaches of the Murray-Darling river system where in-stream salinity is an issue (see figure two). Dryland salinity increases the salt content of groundwater and surface water (Charman and Murphy, 2000). Nationwide about 80 important wetlands are affected by salinity, and this is predicted to rise (State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i>Figure Two (not included here)- Catchments where in-stream Salinity is currently an issue (State of the environment, 2001)</i> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></div><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The major cause of land and water salinisation in Australia is dryland salinity, and the area of land affected is predicted to triple in size over the next fifty years. Secondary salinisation can be caused by over-irrigation; however, its effects are often localised and can be more easily managed (State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Salinity is complicated issue in Australia. It is a classic example of the differences between natural boundaries and political boundaries. Water is a State resource in Australia according to the constitution (Aplin et al., 2000) so over the years each state has evolved its own approach to water management. An example of this is the Murray-Darling basin, the Murray-Darling basin covers 1/7th of Australia’s landmass and crosses four states and the Australian Capital Territory (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia) (Harding, 1998). The problem has occurred as the upstream states develop policies and strategies that directly affect downstream users without consultation. As a result the downstream states (chiefly South Australia) often have to engage in some very hard bargaining to get the other states to adopt reforms that will improve the water quality and flow (Harding, 1998). The only way that this could be avoided was to create a management body (The Murray-Darling Basin Commission) that followed the natural boundaries rather than the political ones, although this still hasn’t resolved or prevented interstate conflicts as shown by the St George Offstream Storage basin proposed by Queensland (Harding, 1998). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Salinity is a nation wide problem in Australia, although it is restricted to different regions in the country rather than spread across the whole country evenly. Some regions of Australia, most notably the Western regions of the Murray-Darling river system and South West Western Australia have naturally high salinity levels and human disturbance is therefore more likely to result in a salinity problem (State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Another aspect of salinity that makes it a problem is the fact that it persists in the landscape. If all harmful practices were to stop overnight salinity problems would still worsen for years. This is without considering the fact that there are technical and political reasons stopping the problem from coming under control (Walker, 1994). It can take from 10-100 years for irrigation salinity to completely bring salt to the surface of the land as the nature of the landscape, groundwater depth, catchment clearing rates and amount of rainfall and irrigation all have an affect. Even when changes to land use are made however it will take decades or centuries to reverse the rise in groundwater levels (State of the Environment, 2001). Depending on climatic patterns it could take between 60 and 2700 years to re-establish hydrological equilibrium (Young, 2000). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Salinity is such a huge problem in Australia that there is no single solution that could possible solve the problem quickly, easily and effectively. For the purpose of this paper the environmental problem that decision-making is attempting to solve will be Dryland salinity as this is the most damaging salinity problem in Australia and it has flow on affects to other salinity problems. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There are many different ways in which people and groups feel dryland salinity should be managed. The broadest divide in these approaches is control the rising groundwater or prevent the rise. Technical methods of control include pumping the groundwater into evaporative pans on the surface where the water evaporates leaving a salt crust on the surface, Groundwater drainage is where drains are placed below the surface leading saline water into waterways rather than contaminating soil. Accession of groundwater could also be minimised by improving irrigation methods, surface drainage and land use and crop management. More ‘natural’ methods of control are ‘retiring’ land (withdrawing it permanently from production allow the natural vegetation to re-establish). Land retirement is unpopular politically and therefore normally occurs unplanned and often not in appropriate locations. A more popular ‘natural’ solution is to maintain the natural vegetation (Walker, 1994). Initially the expectation was that technical (often engineering) solutions would solve the problem, but it has now become clear by the scale of the issue that engineering could never be the only solution (The State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There are many different organizations that are trying to manage the dryland salinity problem in Australia at different scales and with differing levels of success. There are four main scales at which decisions are made about salinity, these are National (Australia wide), State (a single state), Regional (a region or catchment affected by salinity, this can cross political boundaries) and Local (small almost site specific). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">On an Australian wide level there have been many different programs related to dryland salinity. The National Dryland Salinity Program was in effect from between 1993 and 2003. This was an ‘expert’ driven program as it aimed to bring together hydrologists, soil scientists, agronomists, economists, social scientists and policy advisers and had over 50 interrelated research projects. The National Dryland Salinity Program ran over two five-year phases (NDSP, 2003). This program was an attempt to generate a strategic approach to managing dryland salinity problems. In the year 2000 the federal government announced a broad ranging initiative to tackle dryland salinity in key catchments and regions across Australia. It intends to build on work established by other bodies. It states the need for Australian’s to work together in partnership across public and private sectors and a range of activities and policies would be needed (State of the Environment, 2001). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">As the States in Australia have the main responsibility for environmental and natural resource issues there are also strategies for dealing with salinity in place at a state level. The New South Wales Salinity Strategy is an integrated land management approach that manages native vegetation, water and soils together. The strategy uses eight key tools to harness different but complimentary skills of the stakeholders involved in the issue of salinity management in New South Wales (NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, 2000). All other states in Australia also have salinity strategies or equivalent policies. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The two best regional examples of Dryland salinity management can be found in the Wheat belt of South West Western Australia and the Murray Darling Basin. The Wheat belt is an example of a region that is contained in a political boundary and the Murray Darling Basin is an example of a region that crosses political boundaries. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In the South West Western Australia salinity (and how it was caused) was identified as a problem as early as the 1920’s but there was no response to the concerns till later in the century. This region exists within the boundaries of one state and this means that it can be managed by a single state based salinity management policy. This makes management of this significant salinity affected region less complex then regions that overlap political boundaries. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Murray-Darling basin is a region that crosses many political boundaries and this makes management far more complicated. It is a classic case of inconsistencies between natural and political boundaries (Harding, 1998). It was because of all the political boundaries the region crossed that the Murray-Darling Basin Commission was formed in 1988. The brief the Murray-Darling Basin Commission has covers the most comprehensive set of environmental management goals agreed upon by the states (Aplin et al., 1999). Due to the threatening results of Murray Darling basin-wide salinity audit a basin-wide Salinity Management Strategy was released in September 2000. This strategy was developed by the ministerial council of the six governments involved (Queensland, New South Wales, The Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, South Australia and The Commonwealth Government) and will put in place a comprehensive set of control measures throughout the catchments of the whole basin. The strategy has four aims, to protect water quality equally for all water users, to control salt loads with a cap on the end of valley loads for all catchments, to control land degradation and preserve biodiversity and to identify and allocate responsibility for implementing, managing and monitoring the operations. The strategy sees the principle actions it needs to take as putting a cap on the amount of salt flowing from the tributaries in the main channel, providing a system of credits and debits to enforce this cap, creating an investment bank for revegetation, land use changes and other resource investments, creating additional salt interception works to ‘buy time’, increase research and development on new land uses and land use practices that utilise more drainage water yet maintain clean runoff and implementing greater adoption of best practice in irrigation, cropping and grazing practices (State of the Environment, 2001). Problems with this regional method is that it has a cumbersome decision making process and there are limitations on the powers of the commission as they need political will to be made to work (Walker, 1994). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Finally there are also more local attempts to control salinity. This is because prevention of soil salinisation must be on a catchment basis using a number of approaches integrated to local circumstances (Charman and Murphy, 2000). Local groups are particularly active in North-Central Victoria. Most local groups will be part of a regional network however so experience and knowledge can be shared but local mutual interest bases can be retained. Another advantage is the local approach concentrates the problem down into manageable sites (Aplin, 2002). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Salinity is also a difficult environmental problem as there are no proponents or opponents to the issue. This isn’t a straight environmental issue with one group calling for the end of an environmentally damaging industry, and another group promoting commercialisation as an opposition. This issue is concerned with differences of opinion with regards to the technicalities of managing the salt problem. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">All of these factors combined have led to an incredibly complicated decision making process with regards to salinity in Australia. The scale of the salinity issue in Australia and the number of different decision-making bodies with regards to salinity complicates matters greatly. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The decisions that have been made about salinity in Australia vary according to the scale of the decision-making bodies influence. At a national scale most of the decision-making has a strategic focus aimed at providing guidance for decision makers at a smaller scale. At this scale much of the process is expert driven and focused on increasing knowledge, for example the National Dryland Salinity Program. The reason for this would also be related to the fact that the States have the legislative power in regards to the environment, not the federal government. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Decisions made at a state level are more related to slowing the increase in salinity down and tools to achieve this. These strategies are more inclusive than the expert driven national ones and less focused on awareness building and more on guidance. The New South Wales Salinity Strategy needs the government to work with community to set salinity targets the community is prepared to live with. There will be economic incentives for managing land for environmental outcomes and smarter regulation also (this regulation change is something that cannot occur at a national level). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Decision making at regional levels depends on the political boundaries crossed by the region. The Murray Darling Basin needed a specific body set up to oversee the region due to the number of political boundaries that it crossed. This enables there to be consistency across the whole catchment with regards to the decisions made. The drawback to this is that the performance of the Murray Darling Basin Commission in an emergency is likely to be inadequate due to it slow decision-making process and the limitations to its powers placed on it by the states. An intergovernmental organization like this however does enable the governments to see things in the same way and this does go some way to making up for its shortcomings if it can achieve some form of political consensus (Walker, 1994). The West Australian Wheat Belt is a region that does not cross any political boundaries however so therefore it can be governed at a state level and relates to the decision making process at this level greater than it does to a regional area that crosses political boundaries. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Local salinity programs are normally conducted according to a framework developed at a higher scale so much of the decision making process has already been made already at higher levels. Local salinity programs are focused on minimising the effects of salinity. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The various governmental bodies are the main influence on the decision making process. This is because salinity affects everybody in the region to a certain degree not just the property owners. Salinity has social and economic effects that concern governments along with the effect that salinity can have on water quality. Because the various governments have been so involved with salinity recently there has been less of a need for Non-Government Organisations to get involved, this is the same for community groups and industry. None of these groups are as involved in the decision making process as they are for other environmental problems because they don’t need to convince the government that it needs to get involved, this could be due to the fact that community concern of the problem didn’t develop until the 1970’s (Conacher and Conacher, 2000) and governments had been aware of salinity as a problem since earlier in the century. The decision makers consult community groups in the process regardless of this factor though. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">One of the biggest stakeholder disagreements is areas of the issue that decisions need to be made about that are considered to be political ‘no go’ zones. A key example of this is land retirement this is a euphemism for temporary (but possibly or even probably permanent) removal of areas of land from productivity to allow native vegetation to return. This is a highly unpopular issue with farmers and landowners who see it as an attack on their livelihood despite the fact the many responsible commentators feel it is essential. Farmers feel they will not be adequately compensated for their land if there is compulsory retirement and are therefore highly opposed to the issue. Farmers are a highly powerful political lobby group and their opposition to this idea has led to political discussion about land retirement becoming taboo subject and therefore no decisions (either for or against) land retirement can be reached, this can only worsen the problem (Walker, 1994). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Essentially decision making about the issue of salinity has been hampered by the very complexity of the issue. The huge scale of the problem has also caused difficulty as this has resulted in many different bodies being established to deal with what is often the same issue in different (or possibly even overlapping) regions of Australia. To improve decision making relating to salinity there needs to be a coordinated approach at least on a catchment/regional basis and if possible coordinated from a national level. Political boundaries need to have less power than natural ones also to entail effective management. To do this bodies such as the Murray-Darling Basin Commission need to have more power to make decisions. There should also be greater involvement of the people affected by salinity in the decision making process so that they are more willing to adopt the measures decided upon. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Aplin, G., (2002), <i>Australians and Their Environment: an introduction to environmental studies, 2nd edition</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Aplin, G., Beggs, P., Brierley, G., Cleugh, H., Curson, P., Mitchell, P., Pitman, A. & Rich, D., (1999), <i>Global Environmental Crises: an Australian perspective, 2nd Edition</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Australian State of the Environment Committee, (2001), <i>Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage</i>, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Charman, P. & Murphy, B. (eds), (2000), <i>Soils: their properties and management</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conacher, A. & Conacher, J. (2000), <i>Environmental Planning and Management in Australia</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Department of Land and Water Conservation NSW, (2000) <i>Taking on the Challenge: the NSW salinity strategy</i>, NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Sydney </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Department of Land and Water Australia, (2004), <i>Breaking Ground: key findings and research outcomes from 10 years of Australia’s national dryland salinity program- an overview</i>, Land and Water Australia, Canberra </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Harding, R. (ed), (1998), <i>Environmental Decision Making: the roles of scientists, engineers and the public</i>, The Federation Press, Sydney </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Walker, K. (1994), <i>The Political Economy of Environmental Policy: an Australian introduction</i>, UNSW Press, Sydney </span></span> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Young, A. (2000), <i>Environmental Change in Australia Since 1788, 2nd Edition</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne</span></span> </div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-71342199545921066062011-07-27T22:45:00.000-07:002011-07-27T22:47:26.639-07:00Vủỏn Quỏc Gia Cảt Tiẽn (Cat Tien National Park)<div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cat Tien National Park Conservation Program Description </span></span></b></u> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Cat Tien National Park (CTNP) is located 150 km North East of Ho Chi Minh City in the Dong Nai Province of Vietnam and it is a biodiversity hotspot playing host to a number of internationally endangered species and sub-species (Polet, 2003). The Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project (CTNPCP) was begun in 1998 by the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) as an integrated conservation and development project, with the long term objective to conserve the forest and its biodiversity (Wells, 1999). The funding for this project comes from the governments of Vietnam and Netherlands; this is in line with the 10% of the total technical and financial cooperation that European countries must allocate to Asian and Latin American Countries (European Communities, 1993). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> CTNP is divided into two sections (Nam Cat Tien and Cat Loc, see map one) with a combined area of 73,878 ha. With re-demarcation CTNP boundary this area will be reduced to 70,549 ha (Management board of CTNP, 2003). There are 73 mammal species, 311 bird species, 69 retile species, 30 amphibian species and 99 fish species confirmed to occur in the national park, including many threatened species (Polet and Tran, 2003). The function of CTNP is to protect and conserve the local ecosystem with the objectives of (CTNP, 2002): </span></span><br />
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Preserving CTNP’s tropical rain forest ecosystem</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conserve rare genetic resources of flora and fauna</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Protect the Tri An Reservoir watershed</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conduct scientific research that contributes to conservation activities</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Implement international nature and conservation programs as assigned by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Undertake interpretive programs to improve local awareness of the forest management and development law</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Manage and utilise estates, materials, labour and government budgets in an appropriate and effective way, and as per government instruction </span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Map One (Not included here)- Cat Tien National Park showing the division</span></span></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i> between Cat Loc and Nam Cat Tien</i> </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Development of tourism has a lower priority than conservation in CTNP, but biodiversity research, tourism and conservation education are all important aspects of CTNP’s public functions, subsidiary to its main function. An important part of this view is that eco-tourism and community based tourism programs can and should lead to an increase in economic benefits. These economic benefits need to be used to improve CTNP’s facilities and the living conditions for CTNP’s staff, the people living inside the parks boundaries and to a lesser extent the people living in the parks buffer zone (CTNP, 1999). CTNP’s view is similar to the recommendations made by the World Parks Congress in Durbin 2003, and this is that tourism in and around protected areas must be used as a conservation tool (ICUN, 2003). </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The organization of tourism activities in CTNP falls under the responsibility of the CTNP Department of Administration and Tourism Services. There is however a limited number of staff available for tourism activities and facilities such as the information office, cars, boats and guides need to be shared with other park staff and departments. There is also a lack of information available for tourists and few of the CTNP staff speak fluent English (CTNP, 1999). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">9,442 people live within CTNP, with the majority 81% living on the edges, five villages (1,794 people) are located deep within the park, but the human population of the buffer zone is far higher however. The people living inside CTNP have no legal title to the land but are treated as de facto legal inhabitants. There are 11 different ethnic groups inside CTNP boundaries and 24 ethnic groups in the buffer zone (Polet, Do & Nguyen, 2003). The groups inhabiting the park are broadly divided into three categories. The Kinh (the Vietnamese ethnic majority), indigenous ethnic minorities that have been living in the area for several centuries after being displaced from the ancestral homes by the Kinh (the S’Tieng, Chau Ma and Chau Ro) and recently migrated minorities from northern provinces that migrated to the park after the American War (the Tay, Nung, Dao, Hoa and H’Mong are examples). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Currently local communities hardly benefit from tourism and without changes in approach tourism will become one of the most important threats to CTNP and its values. This is important as the park aims to exclude any human activity negatively interfering with CTNP’s objective to maintain its natural ecosystem. Uncontrolled tourism results in littering, noise problems, wildlife disturbance, habitat loss and air, soil and water pollution. Current tourism developments and activities are not in line with CTNP’s conservation aims, there is no strategy adhered to for managing tourists and both planning and management need to improve to halt tourisms negative impact on the environment (Becker & Tran, 2003). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There has been an increase in the number of visitors to CTNP every year since 1995, with domestic visitors far outnumbering international visitors (see table one). Factors that might explain the surge in domestic visitors include; it is easier for Vietnamese people to travel as they no longer need travel permits, transport is easier to arrange, there was a change to a five day working week from a six day one giving people time to travel, and finally there is a rising standard of living which means people can afford to travel (Becker & Tran, 2003). This is similar to Butler’s (1991) view that the number of people partaking in leisure activities has grown steadily due to an increase in affluence, mobility and leisure time. </span></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Table One (not included here)- Visitors to CTNP (from Becker & Tran, 2003) </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The vast majority of visitors enter CTNP by the advised method of boat crossing of the Dong Nai River and entering via the parks headquarters (see photo two). Few people enter by road from Ta Lai and even fewer by boat and road from Cat Tien District and Dak Lua. A bus service to Dalat from Ho Chi Minh City is available and if you stop at Tan Phu you can hire a motorbike rider to take you along the 24km dirt road to CTNP (Becker, 2004). </span></span> <br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Two (not included here)- boat crossing of the Dong Nai River </span></span></i></div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There is a vast spectrum of visitors to CTNP with a huge diversity regarding their activities, interests, facility use, length of stay and impact on the environment. This agrees with Butler’s (1991) view that different groups of visitors will have different impacts on the Environment. CTNP (1999) divided the visitors into seven groups that where later expanded into nine groups by Becker and Tran (2003). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The first group is large hundred strong groups of school children and other young children from the Ho Chi Minh City area. Some groups coordinate their arrival with the park, but other groups arrive unannounced. These groups normally stay for one night normally at the parks headquarters using tents, not in the guesthouses. The group mainly wants to see wildlife, play games, sing and dance around bonfires till late at night. These groups normally follow the exact same paths in huge numbers causing damage, make a lot of noise (it is common for them to use loudspeakers, sirens and musical instruments) and leave behind a huge amount of litter. They also negatively affect other visitors’ experiences and staff. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The second group of visitors is large groups of domestic tourists from the Ho Chi Minh City area (see photo three). These groups normally stay for one night and are organised by a tour operator with little coordination with CTNP. These groups aim to see wildlife, play games, listen to music, sing karaoke and be out with their family. Once again these groups follow the same paths, make a lot of noise (the leaders use whistles, sirens and loudspeakers), litter hugely and disturb other visitors and the staff. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i>Photo Three (not included here)- a portion of a larger group of domestic tourists</i> </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The third group is smaller groups of younger domestic tourists from the Ho Chi Minh City area. These people normally come with a tour operator and stay for one or two nights with the aim of observing nature in a peaceful place. They normally use park facilities and vehicles and often stay at guard stations deep in the park. These groups tend not to litter and do not disturb the other visitors. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The forth group is small groups of foreign tourists visiting the park for one or two days with a local tour operator or motorbike rider, normally without an advance booking. These groups are looking for a quiet place or a tropical forest that they can go wildlife watching in. Most trails are walked (rather than concentrate on one), they tend not to litter (with some even removing litter that they find). They rent bicycles and visit the Chau Ma ethnic minority in Ta Lai where they purchase traditional weaving products (see photo four). They go out at night with park staff spotlighting for wildlife and stay in the guesthouses and guard stations (see photo five). They tend not to bother other visitors. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Four (not included here)- a Chau Ma man and boy </span></span></i></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Five (not included here)- a typical Cat Tien guesthouse (comprising of six rooms) </span></span></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The fifth group are foreign tourists that come either alone or in small groups without a tour operator or motorbike rider. These people aim to visit the jungle and see wildlife. They normally stay a few nights and they visit the ethnic minority villages (see photo four), walk most of the trails and use park facilities. These groups respect park rules and do not disturb other groups. </span></span> </div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The sixth group comprises of small groups (up to four) of foreign birdwatchers. These groups book long in advance and stay for weeks at a time. They use park facilities and normally take a guide along with them. These groups tend to pose no environmental threat and help the park update its wildlife records. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The seventh group is comprised of domestic and foreign tourists on a half or full day daytrip on their way from Ho Chi Minh City to Da Lat. Rarely do these groups make a reservation. They normally stay around the headquarters with some groups littering and others not. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Domestic or foreign researchers comprise the eighth group with regular visits from a few days to months at a time. This is coordinated with the park and they use park facilities, equipment, data and staff to aid their research. There is often a positive interaction with staff as it gives the staff a chance to learn from specialists, however there is sometimes a negative impact when too many specimens are taken or leave their traps in place in the forest. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The ninth and final group is groups of people (both small and large) that use the park for meetings and training. These groups coordinate with the park in advance but tend to have no interest in the environmental setting. They stay for between one night and many weeks, park facilities are used and they often disturb other visitors with their drinking and karaoke. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">A change in visitor behaviour and visitor management has been acknowledged as being needed to stop the negative side effects of tourism. It has been suggested that a move to small-scale eco-tourism or nature-based tourism should be made to protect, maintain and restore the area (Becker & Tran, 2003). </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Tourism development in CTNP aims to (CTNP, 1999): </span></span><br />
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Inform the general public about biodiversity and conservation in general and more specifically about lowland tropical rainforest ecosystems of Vietnam </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Enable the general public to experience a ‘wilderness’ ecosystem </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Enable the scientific community to conduct ecological and environmental research in CTNP </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Provide economic opportunities for the human communities in the buffer zone of CTNP </span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">CTNP (1999) conducted a SWOT analysis of CTNP in relation to tourism. The strengths it perceived were its motivated staff (see photo six), its important facilities already in place (see photo seven), and its good condition forest and wetland ecosystem (see photo eight for an example). The weaknesses it has are a limited trail network that needs constant maintenance, a lack of information materials in the park, a lack of experienced guides, a lack of English proficiency in the staff and a reluctance of staff to correct visitors who break the rules (for cultural reasons). Opportunities for the park are seen to be the growing number of visitors the park is getting and the large amount of assistance that the park receives from the WWF and the World Bank. The activity that threatens CTNP most is large groups visiting CTNP as these groups threaten the parks vulnerable ecosystems and place stress on the parks facilities and staff while disturbing other visitors. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Six (not included here)- Staff of CTNP</span></span></i></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Seven (not included here)- The Main Research Building of CTNP </span></span></i><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Photo Eight (not included here)- Bau Sau (Crocodile Lake) Wetlands </span></span></i></div><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u><b>Key Questions about the CTNPCP’s ability to Contribute to Sustainable Development</b></u> </span></span> <br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In the international literature on eco-tourism there are a series of questions that can be raised about any programs ability to contribute to sustainable development. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Most eco-tourists come from more developed countries (MDC’s) and as such they can lead to tourism operations being forced to cater for the tourists from MDC’s tastes and needs (Cater, 1994). This can place extra stress on the infrastructure and staff of a tourism operation in a Less Developed Country. IN CTNP however the vast majority of tourists are domestic and so therefore do not come with the expectation of being catered to like they are in their home country, as they are in their home country! The foreign tourists from MDC’s also tend to be seeking a more ‘authentic’ experience so they are normally far less demanding about being catered to like they are in their home country. However the development of some facilities the Vietnamese feel are desirable for tourism (such as a bridge over the Dong Nai River) are seen as undesirable by the CTNPCP as they would reduce control of and increase the already unsustainable numbers of tourists (Becker & Tran, 2003). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The United Nations world summit for sustainable development (UN, 2002) states that it is critical for sustainable development to be successfully implemented in the Asia Pacific region if sustainable development is to be successfully implemented globally. It also stated that biodiversity plays a critical role in overall sustainable development and is being lost at an unprecedented rate due to human activities. It states that local people need to benefit from the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity if biodiversity loss is to be reversed. CTNP aims to conserve biodiversity and it doing an effective job, this is despite the fact that only few locals benefit directly from this biodiversity conservation. Through properly implemented eco-tourism it would be possible for local people to begin to see direct benefits from the CTNPCP and this would probably increase the CTNPCP’s effectiveness even further. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This is also in line with the ICUN recommend, which is that local communities should see direct financial benefit from tourism so that they will be accepting of it (Eagles, Bowman & Tao, 2001). The employment of local people in any form in CTNP is poor however, as most high-level staff come from and are appointed by Hanoi (the capital). Canteen, maintenance and cleaning work is often done by overqualified and overworked staff, these jobs could be passed on to locals in need of employment giving more educated staff more time to conduct scientific and tourist work (Becker & Tran, 2003). Local markets do sell some produce to the park, motorbike riders do gain customers from the park and some local people received training as guides but they are seldom recruited (Ina Becker, pers. comm.). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The CTNPCP has run community developing activities such as fruit tree planting, developed SALT (sloping Agricultural Land Techniques) programs, re-establishing traditional weaving techniques in Ta Lai (all of which are alternative income techniques) (Management Board of CTNP, 2002). A difficulty with these alternative income programs has been that people have tended to treat these as extra income methods and have continued with their old activities that are less suitable to conservation also (Ina Becker, pers. comm.). Boundary re-demarcation, resettlement, high efficiency stoves, land reclamation at Bau Chim, tree planting and population surveys were all conducted to mitigate over population inside the parks boundaries (Management Board of CTNP, 2002). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Eagles, Bowman and Tao (2001) listed the disadvantages of non-sustainable tourism development, the advantages and the disadvantages of sustainable tourism development in protected areas. CTNP is experiencing many of the symptoms of non-sustainable tourism development listed, particularly those related to conservation (such as erosion, wildlife disruption, visitor pressure, pollution and the diverting of resources away from other management priorities). By comparing the list of advantages and disadvantages of sustainable tourism it is obvious that small scale tourism could take place in CTNP without any threat to the parks other management goals (such as biodiversity conservation) however it is equally obvious that the tourism that is taking place at this location is not sustainable or an advantage to CTNP. Another suggestion made was sufficient funding needs to be allocated for effective planning and management of protected areas, including tourism management. In CTNP the planning for this was conducted however these plans were never completely implemented. The only implementation from the plan was the construction of more guesthouses and an information centre for visitors, none of which was funded by the Vietnamese government (Becker & Tran, 2003). In fact funding for the conservation programs in CTNP is in short supply (Murphy, 2004), making revenue generated by tourism even more attractive. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The ICUN lists the potential benefits of tourism in protected areas, the negative impacts of human use of the environment and the environmental risks of tourism (Eagles, McCool & Haynes, 2002). A toolkit for visitor management was also included and it has been advised that CTNP begins to implement (Becker & Tran, 2003). In the CTNP Tourism Management Plan (CTNP, 1999) CTNP aimed to implement the following activities, many of which where later mentioned in the ICUN’s guidelines. The activities where: </span></span><br />
<ul><li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Establish a Centre for Service, Eco-tourism and Environmental Education </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Upgrade the existing tourism facilities including staff training </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Zone the park for tourism purposes </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Manage the number of visitors </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Charge visitor entrance fees </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Establish a maintenance program </span></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Bushell (2000) described a series of principles of eco-tourism in practice. These were that the program: </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> i. Focuses on personally experiencing natural areas in ways that lead to greater appreciation and understanding </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> ii. Integrates opportunities to understand natural areas into each experience </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> iii. Represents best practice for ecologically sustainable tourism </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> iv. Positively contributes to the ongoing conservation of natural areas </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> v. Provides constructive ongoing contributions to local communities </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> vi. Is sensitive to, interprets and involves different cultures, particularly indigenous culture </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> vii. Consistently meets client expectations </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> viii. Has accurate marketing leading to realistic expectations </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">When CTNP is compared to these principles it shows that it achieves some of them and fails in other areas. In some areas the failure is due to poor tourism management and in other areas it is because that area is of less relevance. CTNP achieves the 1st, 2nd and 7th principles, achieves with more improvement possible the 4th principle, does not achieve the 5th principle even though it has a high chance of doing so if properly managed, does not achieve the 6th principle as there is not really a large difference between the ethnic majority and minorities (they are all traditionally shifting cultivators, and none have a particularly strong spiritual attachment to the land) and does not achieve the 8th principle as it seems to be marketed as a location for both small scale and mass tourism, which should not be the case as mass tourism is highly threatening to the park. </span></span><br />
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<b><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Assessment of CTNP’s value and effectiveness </span></span></u></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In 2004 CTNP is at a crossroad, this is because at the start of the CTNPCP this year was decided to be the year that the WWF would withdraw. There is a high potential for eco-tourism to be a great aid to CTNP. Not only could it help aid the funding of CTNP’s conservation projects, it could aid the local population because (if managed appropriately) it has the potential to provide employment and economic benefits, if this occurs it would also mean that the local population would not have to exploit the forest so heavily, assisting CTNP with it’s conservation aims. </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">It has been noted that large tourist groups pose one of the greatest threats to CTNP, but that small-scale sustainable eco-tourism has a huge potential to positively contribute to CTNP (Becker & Tran, 2003 and CTNP, 1999). Becker and Tran (2003) proposed a solution to this problem of large mass-tourism groups besides a policy of exclusion. As the majority of visitors (the large mass-tourism groups mainly) want to see wildlife rather then experience the forest, possibly the Vietnamese government could begin to promote the zoo’s in the area rather then CTNP. Saigon Zoo even has an education program for schools (making it even more appropriate for the large groups of school children). Also the development of mass tourism and sporting facilities at CTNP should be halted (these was particular concern over the development of tennis courts and a swimming pool at CTNP head quarters). For people that want to experience these sorts of facilities and activities perhaps Vinh Cuu would be able to be publicly or privately developed into an amusement park (this style of development has proven to be extremely popular in Vietnam, for example the Suoi Tien amusement park). </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">It has been shown that while CTNP has great potential as an eco-tourism project focusing on conservation and sustainable development, this is not occurring. Tourism is uncontrolled, occurring at unsustainable levels, which is not in line with CTNP’s main objectives. Policies, plans and suggestions have been made how to convert this program into a sustainable one but these have not been implemented or adhered to. Without a change of policy regarding tourism in CTNP the future looks bleak for the whole conservation project. </span></span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Becker, I. (2004) How to get to CAT TIEN National Park [On-Line] Available: </span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.blakup.demon.nl/cat_tien/travel.htm" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">http://www.blakup.demon.nl/cat_tien/travel.htm</a></span><span style="color: black;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Becker, I. & Tran Van Mui (2003, March). Vietnam’s Cat Tien National Park in Need of Sustainable Nature Based Tourism. <i>Paper presented at the Tiger in the Forest: Sustainable nature based tourism in Southeast Asia symposium</i>, New York, The United States of America. </span></span> <span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Butler, R. (1991). Tourism, Environment and Sustainable Development. <i>Environmental Conservation, 18 (3), 201-209.</i> </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Bushell, R. (2000, October). The Place of Ecotourism, With Particular Reference to Australia. <i>Paper presented at The Geography of Tourism with NSW Department of Education and Training, Tourism NSW</i>, NSW Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney, Australia. </span></span> <span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cater, E. (1994) Ecotourism a Sustainable Option? In Cater, E. and Lowman G. (eds) <i>Ecotourism in the Third World: Problems and Prospects for Sustainability, 69-86</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cat Tien National Park (CTNP). (1999). Cat Tien National Park Tourism Management Plan. <i>Technical Report 12, Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project- Vietnam</i>. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cat Tien National Park (CTNP). (2002). A Five-year Strategy for the Science and Technical Department of Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. <i>Technical Report 41- Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project- Vietnam</i>. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Eagles, P., Bowman, M. & Tao, T. (2001) <i>Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia</i>. IUCN- The World Conservation Union. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Eagle, P., McCool, S. & Haynes, C. (2002) <i>Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for planning and management</i>, IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">European Communities. (1993) Towards Sustainability, <i>Official Journal of the European Communities, No C 138/5</i>. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">IUCN (2003) WPC Recommendation, Tourism as a Tool for Conservation and Support of Protected Areas. <i>World Parks Congress: Benefits Beyond Boundaries</i>, Durban. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Management Board Cat Tien National Park (2003). <i>Conservation Management and Operational Plan 2003-2008</i>. Cat Tien National Park, Dong Nai, Lam Dong and Binh Phuoc Provinces- Vietnam. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Murphy, D. (2004). An Evaluation of Habitat and Species Management Activities in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. <i>Technical Report 49- Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project- Vietnam</i>. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Polet, G. (2003). Co-Management in Protected Area Management; the case of Cat Tien National Park- Southern Vietnam. In Persoon, G., van Est, D. & Sajise, P. (eds) <i>Co-management of Natural Resources in Asia: a Comparative Perspective</i>. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, Copenhagen, Denmark. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Polet, G., Do, V. & Nguyen, V. (2003). Monitoring and Evaluation of Human Population in the Bufferzone of Cat Tien National Park- Vietnam. <i>Technical Report 45- Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project- Vietnam</i>. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Polet, G. & Tran, V. (2003). Developing the Capacity to Manage Protected Areas, the case of Cat Tien National Park- Vietnam. In Carabias, J. & Kishore, R. (eds) <i>Capacity Needs to Manage Protected Areas Asia</i>. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, The United States of America. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">United Nations (UN). (2002). <i>Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development</i>, Johannesburg, South Africa. </span></span> <br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Wells, P. (1999). Rapid Assessment of Law Enforcement and Park Protection in the Cat Tien National Park- Vietnam. <i>Technical Report 9- Cat Tien National Park Conservation Project- Vietnam</i>.</span></span></div></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-42727218006531067532011-07-27T22:25:00.000-07:002011-07-27T22:25:47.020-07:00Soil Development on Alluvium in the Nepean valley in Western Sydney<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-AU</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</style> <![endif]--><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Abstract </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> A soil chronosequence was constructed based on four sites in the Nepean Valley in Western Sydney. These sites where profiled in the field, which placed a limit on the detail of the study of each individual site. A challenge of the validity of the basic assumptions behind this (and many other) chronosequence(s) is also made, particularly the possibility of finding sites where the only soil forming factor that varies is time, due to the fact that topography, vegetation and organisms and especially climate will all change over the long periods of time that chronosequences span. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Introduction </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Due to the nature of the Nepean Valley in Western Sydney it can be attempted to explain the sequence of soil development on alluvium over time with a chronosequence. Under the traditional (zonal) approach soil formation is thought to be governed by five different factors; parent material, climate, relief or topography, organisms and time (Charman and Murphy, 2001). The idea behind using a chronosequence is that due to the selection of sites profiled time is the only variable. They transform spatial difference into temporal differences (Hugget, 1998) and enable a progressive view of soil development to be formed. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> A soil chronosequence has been established in the Nepean Valley composing of four sites of increasing age and elevation from the riverbed (which is the Nepean river at this point). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Approach/Methods </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The four sites for this chronosequence where profiled in the field, to a variety of depths. A field pH was taken, colour was recorded according to the Munsel colour chart and a field texture was taken. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The first site was taken on a levee bank of the Nepean River with an auger. The profile was recorded to a depth of 300 cm with a uniform (Uc) soil with seven layers recorded. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The second site was a road cutting and was able to be sampled to a depth of 170 cm. Four layers where recorded and once again this profile was uniform (Um). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The third site in this chronosequence was a cutting at the Angus Bank sand mine. This profile had 7 layers and extended too greater than 545 cm deep. The profile was uniform with a large variety of colours. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The fourth profile was another road cutting. This cutting was 640cm deep. Due to the site there was a 90cm gap in the profile that could not be textured, assigned a colour or pH. This profile had the greatest range in field textures. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> One feature observed at all the sites in this chronosequence was a band of red or dark red rounded nodules up to 2cm in size. In the youngest (first) site in this chronosequence the nodules where found between 180 and 200cm and between 1 and 2mm in size. At the second site the nodules where spherical and found between 50 and 120cm deep. At the Angus Bank sand mine (site three) the nodules where sub angular and located between 30 and 50cm deep with a maximum density at 40cm. Finally at the oldest (fourth) site the nodules where found between 5 and 35cm deep with a maximum size of 2cm. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The sites for this chronosequence were only observed in the field however. This means that in depth particle size analysis, fine clay: total clay ratios, chemical weathering analysis and other lab based calculations that have been used to determine soil development sequences in other chronosequences (Chittleborough et al., 1984 I, Chittleborough et al., 1984 II, Brewer and Walker, 1968) could not be calculated. This means that the rate of clay illuviation the most common process ascribed to soil development over time in literature using chronosequences (Chittleborough et al., 1984 I, Chittleborough et al., 1984 II, Brewer and Walker, 1968) cannot be determined. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Results </span></span></u></b><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The results for site profiles are presented in tables 1 to 4 respectively. Site One was the youngest site of the chronosequence and due to its spatial location (next to the Nepean river) the river is still playing a part in its accretion. Site two was the next oldest. Probably forming during the Pleistocene with an approximate age of several hundred thousand years if this is true. The third site could possibly have been formed by Aeolian processes. This would make it approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years old, which would mean it doesn’t fit in with the rest of this chronosequence. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span></div><div align="left" class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: left;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 328px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 46.0pt;" width="61"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Site One</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 152.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="203"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Profile</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">A1</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 3/2 (Dark Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">70cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">A2</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 5/3 (Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">172cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 4/4 (Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">180cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td rowspan="3" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Nodules Found in this layer</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 6/6 (Dark Yellowish Brown)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">200cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Fine Sandy Loam</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 4/4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">270cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Medium Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 4/4 (Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">285cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 4/4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">300cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Loamy Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div> </div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Table One- Site One</span></div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 257px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 58.0pt;" width="77"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Site 2</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 87.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Profile</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">A1</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5YR 4/3</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">30cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Possible <b>A2</b></span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5YR 5/4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">50cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">PH 6</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Nodules at 60cm</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5YR 5/6</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">120cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2.5YR 4/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">170cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Table Two- Site Two</span></div><div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span> </div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 739px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td colspan="9" nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: black 1.5pt; border-style: solid; border-top: windowtext 1.5pt; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: black 1.5pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 554.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="739"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Site 3</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Layer</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Depth</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Texture</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Moist Colour</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Dry Colour</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">pH</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Grain Size</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Boundary</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Section A</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">0-8cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2.5YR 3/2</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 3/3</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">710-1000</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Section B</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">8-20cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 6/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 5/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">500-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual, Straight</span></div></td> <td rowspan="3" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 45.45pt;" valign="bottom" width="61"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 8.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Nodules Between 30-50cm with max density at 40cm</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">20-50cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 5/6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 5/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual, Straight</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">50-150cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 7/6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 6/6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">250-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Abrupt, Wavy</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">4</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">150cm+</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">350-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Section C</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" rowspan="8" style="border-bottom: solid black 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">4</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">200-475cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Red- 2.5YR 4/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">350-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear, Wavy</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Yellow 2.5YR 7/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">White 7.5YR 8/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Grey 5YR 5/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Section D</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">480-545cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2.5YR 7/8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5.75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">500-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual, Wavy</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">545cm+</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sand</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5YR 8/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">500-710</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear, Straight</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Table Three</span></div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 464px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 38.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="51"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Site 4</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 261.65pt;" valign="bottom" width="349"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Profile</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 4.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">A1</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 4/4 (m) (Dark Yellowish Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sharp</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 5</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 8.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10 R 3/6 (Dark Red) Nodules</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">A2</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 4/6 (m) (Dark Yellowish Brown)</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">35cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gradual</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 5.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5YR 4/6 (Reddish Brown) and 10YR 6/8 (Brownish Yellow)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">60cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Medium Clay</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 14.25pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gap</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">150cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.75pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10R 3/6 (Dark Red)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
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</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">240cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 4.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2.5YR 3/6 (Dark Red)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
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</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">520cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Ph 5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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<tr style="height: 13.5pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 4/6 (Reddish Brown)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 14.25pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Medium Clay</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 14.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 13.5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10YR 6/1 (Reddish Grey)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 13.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: .75pt .75pt 0cm .75pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</tbody></table><div style="text-align: center;"> </div><div class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Table Four- Site Four</span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">However if fluvial processes are assumed to have formed the soil found at the third site the age of this site would be estimated as several hundred thousand years old also. The final (fourth) site can be given the most definite age due to the folding at the site. This site has been worked out to be between 5 and 15 million years old. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There was a high degree of textural similarity between the first three sites profiled. With the textures of all the different layers fitting into the first two texture groups, the sands and sandy loams (Northcote, 1968). The major observed differences between sites profiled were colour and depth of the upper layers. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The first site had a consistently darker colour possibly indicating more organic content due to the nearby river. Site two was predominantly red in colour mainly due to the oxygen rich environment oxidising the iron. The third site had a large range in colours ranging from reds to greys to yellow to whites. This could indicate different drainage patterns, oxidation or deposition patterns. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">For site one the A1 layer was 70cm thick and the total thickness of the A1 and A2 layers was 172cm. This is much larger than the combined thickness of the A1 and possible A2 layers in site two which came to a total of 50cm. At the third site the A layer was even thinner only measuring 8cm thick. This could possibly represent greater levels of erosion with time and less deposition (site one would probably still be receiving fluvial deposits). </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Discussion </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Constructing this chronosequence is reliant on some key assumptions that should be explored. With the theory of a chronosequencing (time being the only variable in the soil forming process) you are exchanging the spatial variance for a temporal one to establish a timeline of soil development (Hugget, 1998). The biggest assumption here is that you can find a variety of sites that have been exposed to the same soil forming processes over differing periods of time. This means under the traditional method you need to find site where climate, parent material, topography and organism activity have all been constant for hundreds of thousands or even millions of years (these basic zonalistic assumptions can also be challenged as seen in Paton et al., 1995). Climate is highly unlikely to have remained constant for even a (relatively) short period of time (Hugget, 1998). The period of time that the chronosequence studied spans is up to 15 million years and there have been many major climate changes over that period of time, such as the end of the last ice age approximately 10,000 years ago. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Vegetation (organisms) may change due changes in climate, but they could also change with large periods of time such as millennia (Hugget, 1998). Topography is also likely to change over a period of millennia and if this does change it may not represent a single pedogenic process acting without interruption from geomorphic processes (Hugget, 1998). The site used for this chronosequence all had the same parent material (so this factor is constant) however the range of ages in this chronosequence would be expansive enough to have the possibility of topographic or vegetative change between the youngest and oldest site. Vegetation change has also occurred intensively in the last 200 years with European settlement. Site one has become agricultural land while site two was stripped of vegetation to become a sand mine. Climate would also have been likely to change at least once with the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The changes in land use could also have affected soil development, and certainly will in the future. Especially at site three where the soil is being mined and transported away. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Hugget (1998) also identified a second set of assumption made when constructing a chronosequence and that is that all changes in the soil processes and events in the soil history are recorded or recorded at equal magnitude. In relation to the studied chronosequence this could mean that although from the field study the first three site appeared similar (uniform sands or loamy sands) there could have been events that occurred at individual sites that have not been recorded in the soil history as accurately. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conclusion </span></span></b></u><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> There were many assumptions made in constructing this chronosequence many of which can be challenged. Most importantly being the consistency of the climate and organisms and vegetation’s effect on the soil development. The brief nature of the study also makes it difficult to measure clay illuviation rates and chemical weathering rates that can be used to compare the different sites with the aim to indicate how soil develops over time. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">From the data collected the assumptions that can be made over the development of the soil is that over time the A1 and A2 topsoil decreases in depth (possibly due to erosion rates increasing or less material being deposited, as site one was in the position to receive fluvial deposits). The other conclusion that could be made is that the rates of oxidation increase with time (or perhaps distance from the river), which was illustrated by the redder colouration of the soil in the older chronosequences. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The validity of the assumptions needed to create this chronosequence (and most others) however are substantial and bring into doubt the idea that the only traditional soil forming process that varies in these site is time. If this is true then any conclusion based on the “fact” that these profiles for a continuous temporal sequence is probably untrue. </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References </span></span></b></u> <br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Brewer, R. & Walker, P.H., 1969. Weathering and soil development on a sequence of river terraces. <i>Australian Journal of Soil Research, 7: 293-305</i> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Charman, E.V. & Murphy, B.W. (eds). 2001. <i>Soils: Their Property and Management</i>. Oxford University Press, Melbourne </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Chittleborough, D.J., Walker, P.H. & Oades, J.M. 1984. Textural differentiation in chronosequences from Eastern Australia, Descriptions, chemical properties and micromorphologies of soils, <i>Geoderma, 32: 181-202 </i></span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Chittleborough, D.J., Walker, P.H. & Oades, J.M. 1984. Textural differentiation in chronosequences from Eastern Australia, Evidence from particle-size distributions, <i>Geoderma, 32: 203-226</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hugget, R.J. 1998. Soil chronosequences, soil development, and soil evolution: a critical review. <i>Catena, 32: 155-172 </i></span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Paton, T.R., Humphreys, G.S. & Mitchell, P.B. 1995. <i>Soils: A new global view</i>, UCL Press Ltd, London </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Walker, P.H. & Hawkins, C.A., 1957. A study of river terraces and soil development on the Nepean River, NSW. <i>Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW. 91: 67-84</i></span></span> </div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-70759231714488355452011-07-27T22:03:00.000-07:002011-07-27T22:03:50.114-07:00Fire Intensity, Spatial Variability and Bioturbation effects on sediment at Blue Gum Creek, NSW<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<u><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Abstract</span></b></u><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;"> Fire intensity and spatial variability along slopes and their affect on bioturbation rates are investigated in this study at Blue Gum Creek in the Nattai national park. Many studies (mainly focusing on soil hydrophobicity) have been done to determine the effects of fire on soil erosion rates but none have attempted to determine the effect of fires of different severity on bioturbation rates. High intensity fires seem to increase the importance of ant mounding, while low intensity fires tend to increase the rates of small vertebrate scrapings. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The position in the landscape also has an effect on bioturbation rates with ant mounding greatest at the shallower slopes with a lower gravel percentage and small vertebrate scrapings unaffected by gravel percentage and being greatest on the steeper middle slope where ant-mounding rates are at the lowest. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The long-term bioturbation rates of this area where also determined so that the length of time needed to form the observed gravel layers could be calculated. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Introduction: Landscape location, bioturbation and bushfire intensity are three separate natural processes that can all affect soil erosion rates. Whether there is a connection between these processes is unknown. Burnt sites are more prone to accelerated erosion than unburnt/undisturbed sites (Zierholz et al., 1995, Blong et al., 1982). Ant mounding is likely to contribute to an increased downslope sediment transfer by providing material that can be detached by runoff (Dragovich & Morris, 2002). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Dragovich and Morris (2002) determined that bio-transfer of sediment which was mainly due to mounding was more than 10 times greater on moderately burnt areas than areas that suffered high or low intensity burns (however different studies have different definitions of high, moderate and low intensity fires). Dragovich and Morris (2002) also found that Slopewash movement was greatest on high intensity burn areas but the rate of ant mounding was lower the moderate and low intensity burn areas. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Most studies focusing on the effects of bushfires on soil are in relation to fires affecting the hydrophobic nature of soils (Shakesby et al., 2002, Zierholz et al., 1995, Prosser & Williams, 1998). This increased runoff rate (caused by the hydrophobic soil) means that hillslope erosion can be orders of magnitude greater after a fire than before it (Prosser & Williams, 1998). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Bioturbation is an important soil process but rates of bioturbation have not been studied in relation to landscape position or in relation to bush fire intensity. Within two weeks of a fire passing through Prosser and Williams (1998) recorded the first change to the soil surface as ant mounding. The funnel ant (Aphaenogaster longiceps) is an important bioturbator with mounding rates between 5.45 - 68.38 t ha-1yr-1 (Patton et al., 1995). Aphaenogaster longiceps has been recorded as able to turn over the upper 30cm of soil in 430yrs (Humphreys, 1981) and Aphaenogaster barbigula (a different species of funnel ant) has been estimated to remove 92% of the total volume of the soil within 100 years (Eldridge & Pickard, 1994) making Aphaenogaster an important agent in soil turnover. The fact that ants are unable to move larger material can also lead to texture development in soil. Other larger and relatively less common species of ant (Iridomyrmex purpureus and Camponotus intrepidus) however have been found to be far less effective agents of soil turnover (Cowan et al, 1985). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">There have however been no studies on the affect that landscape position has on bioturbation rates, or the affect of different intensities of bushfire have on bioturbation rates. This study intends to investigate the spatial variability of ant mounds and small vertebrate scrapings, the effect of fire severity on bioturbation and the longer term impacts of bioturbation on the soil/sediment characteristics of Blue Gum Creek. </span><br />
<br />
<b><u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Study Area</span></u></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The study area for this study was the same area as used by Shakesby et al. (in press). Blue Gum creek is found in Nattai national park (150°29.5’E, 34°13.3’S, Shakesby et al. unpublished). The fire passed through the area around Christmas 2001. The high intensity and low intensity burn sub-catchments used were also the same as those used in Shakesby et al. (unpublished). Both study catchments where found on the Western side of Blue Gum Creek. The high intensity burn area was characterised by moderate to extreme fire intensity according to GIS remote sensing imagery analysis. The low intensity burn area was characterised by low to moderate fire intensity. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The bedrock is Hawkesbury sandstone with soils ranging in texture over the catchment from loamy sands to sandy loams over the slopes. Sandy clay loams could be found in sheltered locations. The textures in the profiles recorded range from sandy loams to clayey sands (on the flat base of the high intensity burn site), medium sandy loam to medium sandy clay to fine sandy clay loam (at the mid slope position of the high intensity burn site) and sandy clay loam to sandy clay (at the flat base of the low intensity burn site) (see profiles 1, 2 and 3 in the appendix). </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The bushfire that affected the area began on the 3rd of December 2001 and first affected the study site on the 24th and 25th of December (Shakesby et al., in press). </span><br />
<br />
<b><u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Method</span></u></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;"> Three plots of 5x1m where set up at different sites along the catchment slope in the aftermath of the Christmas 2001 bushfires. The sites where the hill top (T), the upper mid-slope (MU), the lower mid-slope (ML), the bottom of the slope (B) (on the high intensity site the bottom slope was divided into upper and lower (BU and BL) but if a comparison was made between high burn intensity and low burn intensity an average of HBU and HBL was used) and the flat at the base of the slope (F). The letter H or L in front of the site name indicated whether the site was from the high burn site area or the low burn site area (thus HT indicate the top of the high burn slope and LBU indicates the upper portion of the low burn sites bottom slope. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;"> After 14 months the mounds of the funnel ant (Aphaenogaster longiceps) where collected and taken back to the lab. The size of small mammal scrapings was also measured, and surface bulk density was taken at a selection of sites. Three soil profiles where taken (HF, HM and LF, see profiles 1,2 and 3). The surface stone percentage was recorded. Bulk density was also recorded at a series of locations and for ant mounds and animal scrapes.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 87pt; width: 414px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 19.7pt;"> <td colspan="3" nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-right: dashed black 1.0pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 19.7pt; mso-border-left-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: dashed black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 224.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="299"> <h2>High Intensity Burn Flat</h2></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 19.7pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 86.75pt;" valign="bottom" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.65pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 2.5/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">30cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.65pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 3/2</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td rowspan="6" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 86.75pt;" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gravel Layer 30-59cm (<1cm to 15cm, sub-rounded)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5yr 3/3</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">59cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Diffuse</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-top-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5yr ¾</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clayey Sand to</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 4/4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.65pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">110cm</span></div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; height: 18.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext 1.5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 18.65pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><br />
</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoCaption" style="text-align: center;">Profile One</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 78.2pt; width: 439px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td colspan="3" nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-right: dashed black 1.0pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: dashed black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 247.3pt;" valign="bottom" width="330"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">High Intensity Burn Mid-Slope</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 18.0pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 81.6pt;" valign="bottom" width="109"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.05pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Organics and Charcoal</span></div></td> <td rowspan="2" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 81.6pt;" valign="bottom" width="109"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Rainsplash Features</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Medium Sandy Loam</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5y 2.5/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.05pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">15cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 17.05pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Clear</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td rowspan="4" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 81.6pt;" valign="bottom" width="109"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gravel Layer 40cm (up to 40cm sub rounded)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Medium Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 2.5/1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.05pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">55cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 17.05pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Diffuse</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Fine sandy clay loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 16.1pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10yr 3/2</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 16.1pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 16.1pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 17.05pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; height: 17.05pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 17.05pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoCaption" style="text-align: center;">Profile Two</div><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /> </span> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 87pt; width: 307px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 13.65pt;"> <td colspan="3" nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-right: dashed black 1.0pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 13.65pt; mso-border-left-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: dashed black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 165.8pt;" valign="bottom" width="221"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Low Intensity Burn Flat</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: none; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: double windowtext 2.25pt; height: 13.65pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 64.2pt;" valign="bottom" width="86"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Notes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.9pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border: solid windowtext 1.5pt; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5yr 3/3</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">pH<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.9pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">12cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5yr ¾</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay to</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">pH<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.9pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">51cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 3/3</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5yr 4/4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">pH 5.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.9pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">80cm</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dotted windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: dotted windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7.5yr 4/6</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td rowspan="4" style="border-bottom: double black 2.25pt; border-left: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double black 2.25pt; mso-border-left-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 64.2pt;" width="86"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Gravel Layer 105cm, rounded s/sl pebbles</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Sandy Clay Loam</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.2pt; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td colspan="2" nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 12.2pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">(faint mottles)</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 12.9pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes; page-break-inside: avoid;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; height: 12.9pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">pH 5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: double windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: dashed windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.9pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-right-alt: dashed windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;" valign="bottom"> <div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoCaption" style="text-align: center;">Profile Three</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In the lab calculations where made on the oven dry weight of all the samples taken. Samples of ant mounds were sieved first and then dried to remove moisture. The comparison of the mounding amounts can be found in the appendix. Bulk density and gravimetric moisture content was calculated for the samples taken (although gravimetric moisture content was not used in this study). The percentage of the total sample weight that was gravel was then calculated. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The data also had to be prepared to enable a comparison between ant mounding and animal scrapes. First an average ant mounding amount and animal scrape volume was calculated from the three plots at each sample location. To enable comparison between the ant mounding (which was measured in grams) and animal scrapes (which was measured in cm3) the volume of the scrape was multiplied by the average bulk density of the site (either high intensity burn or low intensity burn). This gave both ant mounding and animal scrapes in g/5m2/14 months which when divided by 5 gave g/m2/14months. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><u><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Results</span></b></u></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Fire intensity did seem to play a role in the amount of bioturbation. The high intensity burn site had a much greater total amount of ant mounding and average amount of ant mounding (measure in g) (See table one). There where more sites sampled in the high intensity burn location so the upper bottom slope (HBU) and lower bottom slope (HBL) where averaged together to be compared to the low intensity burn bottom slope (LB).</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 529px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 128.0pt;" width="171"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 117.0pt;" width="156"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Total Ant Mounding</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 152.0pt;" width="203"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Average Ant Mounding</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">High Burn</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">12739.69</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">4246.563333</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Low Burn</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">9346.22</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2924.803333</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Difference (High-Low)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3393.47</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1321.76</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;"><i>Table One- Comparison of ant mounding between high intensity and </i></div><div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;"><i>low intensity burn locations (in g).</i></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">However a comparison in the rates of small vertebrate scraping shows that the is an even greater difference between low intensity burn sites and high intensity burn sites, but in this case the low intensity burn location had a greater total amount and average amount of small vertebrate scrapings (measured in cm3) (See table two).<br />
<br />
</span></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 579px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 147.0pt;" width="196"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 149.0pt;" width="199"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Total Scrapes</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 138.0pt;" width="184"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Average Scrapes</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Low Burn</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">36714</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2447.6</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">High Burn</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">15640</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1042.666667</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Difference (Low-High)</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">21074</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1404.933333</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: center;"><i>Table Two- Comparison of animal scrapes between high intensity and low intensity burn locations (in cm3).</i></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">There was approximately 36% more total ant mounding at the high intensity burn location then the low intensity burn location and 45% greater average ant mounding. The was over double (approximately 135%) the total volume and average volume of small vertebrate scrapes at the low intensity burn site compared to the high intensity burn site. There is no observed mechanism relating to fire intensity that can be used to explain this difference simply, although ant activity is related to temperature and moisture (Porter & Tschinkel, 1987 in Eldridge & Pickard, 1993) and animal scrapings could be related to searching for food. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> A different picture emerges when landscape location and ant mounding rates and small vertebrate scraping rates are compared. Overall (both high intensity and low intensity burn sites added together) ant mounding is greatest on the bottom slope, followed by the flat, which is then followed by the top of the slope and then the upper mid slope and the lower mid slope. For the High burn location specifically ant mounding is greatest at the bottom slope, followed by the top of the slope, then the slope flat, followed by the upper middle slope and the lower middle slope. This is different again for the low intensity burn catchment. Here the flat has the highest amount of ant mounding, followed by the top of the slope, then the bottom of the slope, and followed by the lower middle slope then the upper middle slope. This is all summarised in table three.</span></span><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" /> </div><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"></span> <div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 49.65pt; width: 420px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 85.0pt;" width="113"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 72.0pt;" width="96"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Total (g)</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 110.0pt;" width="147"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Average (g)</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Slope</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">T</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5792.4</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">870.0983333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">8<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">MU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1428.03</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">238.005</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">32<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">ML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">699.81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">116.635</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">20<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">B</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7204.7</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1200.783333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5<sup>o</sup>-15<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">F</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">6960.97</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1160.161667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><5<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HT</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3505.16</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1168.386667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HMU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1127.54</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">375.8466667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">73</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">24.33333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5133.67</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1711.223333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBL</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7397.97</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2465.99</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HF</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1768.17</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">589.39</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LT</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2287.24</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">571.81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LMU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">300.49</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">100.1633333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">626.81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">208.9366667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LB</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">938.88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">312.96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LF</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5192.8</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1730.933333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: center;"><i>Table Three- Spatial Variation of Ant Mounding</i></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt;"><span> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">The animal scrapes are different to ant mounding across the landscape also. Overall the upper middle slope has the greatest volume of scrapings, followed by the lower middle slope, then the bottom slope, then the flat and finally the slope top. At the high intensity burn location the most animal scrapings occurred at the upper middle slope, followed by the bottom slope and then the slope top, followed by the lower middle slope and then the flat. The low intensity burn location differs again with the greatest volume of animal scrapes at the lower middle slope, then the bottom slope and the flat, followed by the upper middle slope and then the slope top (Shown in table four).</span></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 76.65pt; width: 348px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 18.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 66.0pt;" width="88"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Total (cm<sup>3</sup>)</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 99.0pt;" width="132"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Average (cm<sup>3</sup>)</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 48.0pt;" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Slope</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">T</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2356</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">392.6666667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">8<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">MU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">15773</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2628.833333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">32<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">ML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">14200</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2366.666667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">20<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">B</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10954.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1825.75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5<sup>o</sup>-15<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">F</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7479</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1246.5</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 18.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><5<sup>o</sup></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HT</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">988</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">329.3333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HMU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">10679</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3559.666667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">864</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">288</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3183</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1061</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBL</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2515</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">838.3333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HF</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">260</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">86.66666667</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LT</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1368</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">456</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LMU</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">5094</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">1698</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LML</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">13336</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">4445.333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: none; border-left: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LB</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">9697</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">3232.333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LF</span></b></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">7219</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">2406.333333</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.75pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: center;"><i>Table Four- Spatial Variation of animal scrapes</i></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt;"><span> </span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Graph One compares the total ant mounding (in g) to the total animal scrapes (in g) over the landscape. This shows that animal scrapings where far greater than ant mounding at the middle slope locations and that ant mounding was only greater than animal scrapings on the tops of the slope and the bottom slope and the flats of the high intensity burn location. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i>Graph One (Not included here)- Ant Mounding and Animal Scrapes spatial variation</i> </span></span></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> There is a much greater relationship (with an exponential trendline) between the amount of ant mounding and the gravel percent than the rate of animal scraping and gravel percent. The correlation coefficient of low burn ant mounding rates is approximately 0.66 and 0.53 for high burn ant mounding. When comparing this to animal scrapings and gravel percentage you get a r2 value of 0.0004 (for the low intensity burn location) and 0.24 for the high intensity burn location (See graphs two, three, four and five). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Graph Two (not included here)- Ant mounding compared to gravel % (low intensity burn site) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Graph Three (not included here)- Ant mounding compared to gravel % (high intensity burn site) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Graph Four (not included here)- Animal scrapings compared to gravel % (low intensity burn site) </span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i>Graph Five (not included here)- Animal scrapings compared to gravel % (high intensity burn site)</i> </span></span></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Using the ant mounding amounts, animal scrapings volume and bulk densities sample an average bioturbation rate can be calculated in g/m2/14mths (table 5). This data can be used to calculate soil turnover rates to determine the longer-term impacts of bioturbation on soil characteristics.</span></span></div><div class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%;"><br />
</div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 84.15pt; width: 328px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 40.0pt;" width="53"> <h1>Site</h1></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt; width: 206.0pt;" width="275"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Average Bioturbation (g/m2/14mths)</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LT</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">205.9090894</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LMU</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">360.9251182</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LML</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">934.2376147</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LB</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">711.518993</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">LF</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">829.2849406</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HT</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">291.47458</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HMU</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">699.8826909</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.75pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HML</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">55.41000789</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBU</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">528.4477397</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HBL</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">640.3235824</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">HF</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 15.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 1.0pt 1.0pt 0cm 1.0pt;"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">133.0878018</span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-align: center;"><i>Table Five- Average bioturbation rates</i></div><div align="center" class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><u><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Discussion</span></span></b></u><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The results of this study can be interpreted in a variety of ways. The effect of fire severity on bioturbation show that after an intense fire ant mounding becomes the most important form of bioturbation but after a less intense fire animal scrapings are the most important form of bioturbation (see tables one and two). This could be due to a variety of reasons, after an intense fire the might be less food available to small vertebrates so they are not found as commonly in intensely burnt locations, which would affect animal scraping rates. Or possibly Aphaenogaster longiceps return to a burnt location faster then other animals and therefore get a ‘head start’ on other bioturbators. Prosser and Williams (1998) recorded ant activity two weeks after a fire passed through a location. Neither of these hypotheses can be backed up with evidence from this study however. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The spatial variability of ant mounding seems to be related to gravel percent (shown in graphs two and three). This would be because ants are unable to move gravel-sized material. This corresponds with the bulge in gravel percent at the middle slope location where ant mounding is at its lowest rate (see graphs one and six). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><i>Graph Six (not included here)- Gravel % compared to landscape location</i> </span></span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Animal scraping rates are unaffected by gravel percentage as small vertebrates are able to move gravel sized material (see graphs four and five). However this does not explain why animal scraping rates are greatest at the middle slope locations or why the animal scraping rates are lowest by far at the slope top locations (see table four). </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The longer-term impacts of these rates of bioturbation can be determined. Profile one (at the high intensity burn flat location) had a gravel layer between 30 and 59cm deep, by taking an average bioturbation rate (for the high intensity burn flat) of 133.0878018 g/m2/14mth and converting in to cm3 (by dividing it by the bulk density) you get an annual soil turn over rate of 1.05mm/yr or 1.3mm/yr (depending on whether you use the average high intensity burn location bulk density or the high intensity burn flat bulk density). This means that if the gravel layer is 30 cm deep it will take either approximately 280 or 230 years to form. If the gravel layer is 59cm deep it would take either approximately 560 or 450 years to develop. This gives soil turnover rates very similar to the rates calculated by Humphreys (1981) of 30cm in 430yrs. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> At profile two (the high intensity burn middle slope location) a gravel layer was found at 40cms deep. There were large differences in bioturbation rates between the upper middle slope and lower middle slope so the time to form this gravel layer will vary depending on which sites bioturbation rates where used or if an average bioturbation rate is used. If an average bioturbation rate is used it will take either approximately 110 or 120 years to form (once again depending on using a site specific bulk density or a high intensity burn location bulk density). If the bioturbation rates for the upper middle slope are used the layer would take approximately 60 years to form (using either bulk density) and if the lower middle slopes bioturbation rates are used it will take either 600 or 740 years (depending on which bulk density is used). Both the upper middle slope and average middle slope rates of soil turnover are very high and this would have a large effect on soil profile development. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The third profile (at the low intensity burn flat) had a much deeper gravel layer (at 105cm). But the site had a high rate of bioturbation meaning that the top 105cm of soil is turned over in approximately 150yrs (whether you use the bulk density of the low burn flat or the average bulk density of the low intensity burn location. This high rate of turnover would have a large role to play in soil development. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Conclusion</span></u></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The effect of fire severity on bioturbation according to the results is that ant mounding is most important after a high intensity fire and animal scraping is more important after a low intensity fire. There was no mechanism determined to be the cause of this however. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> Spatial variability of ant mounding rates along a hillslope seems to be related to the amount of gravel in the soil, as ants are unable to move gravel sized material. This relates back to hill slope location, as the gravel percentage seems to relate to the spatial location along the slope. Small vertebrate scrapes however are unaffected by the percentage of gravel in the soil. There is no explanation relating to landscape position or fire severity however for the distribution of small vertebrate scrapings. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The rates of soil turnover calculated mean that the gravel layers found in the profiles could have formed in 10’s of or 100’s of years, similar to other studies on Aphaenogaster longiceps (Paton et al., 1995). These high rates would have a significant impact on soil profile development. </span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><b><u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">References</span></u></b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Blong, R.J., Riley, S.J. & Crozier, P.J. 1982. Sediment Yield from Runoff Plots Following Bushfire near Narrabeen Lagoon, NSW. <i>Search. Vol. 13 No. 1-2</i> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cowan, J.A., Humphreys, G.S., Mitchell, P.B. & Murphy, C.L. 1985. An Assessment of Pedoturbation by two species of Mound-building Ants, Camponotus intrepidus (Kirby) and Iridomyrmex purpureus (F. Smith). <i>Australian Journal of Soil Research. 22, 95-107</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Dragovich, D. & Morris, R. 2002. Fire Intensity, Slopewash and Bio-transfer of sediment in Eucalypt Forest, Australia. <i>Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 27, 1309-1319</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Eldridge, D.J. & Pickard, J. 1994. Effects of Ants on Sandy Soils in Semi-arid Eastern Australia: II. Relocation of nest entrances and consequences for bioturbation. <i>Australian Journal of Soil Research, 32, 323-333</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Humphreys G.S. 1981. The Rate of Ant Mounding and Earthworm Casting near Sydney, New South Wales. <i>Search, Volume 12 no.5</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Paton, T.R., Humphreys, G.S. & Mitchell, P.B. 1995. <i>Soils: A new global view</i>, UCL Press. London </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Prosser, I.P. & Williams, L. 1998. The effect of wildfire on runoff and erosion in native Eucalyptus forest. <i>Hydrological Processes. Volume 12, 251-265</i> </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Shakesby, R.A., Chafer, C., Doerr, S.H., Blake, W.H., Wallbrink, P., Humphreys, G.S. & Harrington, B.A. 2003. <i>Fire intensity, water repellency characteristics and hydrogeomorphological changes following the Christmas 2001 Sydney forest fires</i>. Unpublished </span></span> <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Zierholz, C., Hairsine, P. & Booker, F. 1995. Runoff and soil erosion in Bushland following the Sydney bushfires. <i>Australian Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Volume 8, No.4</i></span></span>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2013331615907136885.post-13431893423388302132011-07-27T21:42:00.000-07:002011-07-27T22:12:48.143-07:00Detail the biophysical, economic and social costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountain Hydroelectric Scheme. Discuss the potential for a win-win resolution. What would you recommend and why?<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme was begun in 1949 and was completed in 1974. It was the largest ever engineering project undertaken in Australia. It consists of 16 dams, 145 km of tunnels and 80 km of aqueducts and has had a clear biogeomorphic effect on the Snowy River (Erskine et al., 1999). The issues that surround the Snowy Mountain Hydroelectric scheme are extraordinarily complicated due to all the different stakeholder groups along various parts of the scheme. This and the un-quantifiable nature of many aspects of river health have made it extraordinarily difficult for decision makers to come to a resolution that satisfies everybody affected.</span></span><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><br style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"> The costs and benefits of the scheme can be very hard at some times to differentiate between. Often what one group sees as a benefit other groups see as a cost. Also benefits to one group can lead indirectly to costs for other groups. The costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountain Hydroelectric Scheme can be divided into three divisions: Biophysical costs and benefits, Economic costs and benefits and Social costs and benefits. Recently there has been much debate over the returning of 28% of the pre-Snowy Scheme flow to the Snowy River to serve as environmental flow, and this debate revealed the many differing views on how the scheme should be managed and its relative costs and benefits to different stakeholder groups.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Biophysical costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountain scheme are the easiest to identify as they are obvious changes to the Environment that can be monitored. The basis of the biophysical change due to the scheme (whether this is a benefit or cost) is due to the diversion of water from one river system (the Snowy River) to a different series of river systems (the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers), and the resultant affect on the two catchments. A series of dams, tunnels and aqueducts exist to control river flow and generate hydroelectricity. As a natural river system the Snowy River had a highly variable natural flow regime (peaking around October with 292,239 ML flowing in that month and lowest in January with 41,203 ML flowing) with a total average flow in one year of 1,622,437. After the scheme this flow was reduced to 67,404 ML a year peaking around June (at 8,990) and then later in October (at 8965). Since Dam closure in 1967 the Snowy River has had a flow of almost constantly less than the most severe drought on record (Erskine et al., 1999). Diagram one shows the peak annual flow of the snowy river at Dalgety and how it has decreased since the Snowy scheme was completed.</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">This has led to major problems for the snowy river below Jindabyne Dam. Since the scheme was completed there has been a decrease in the channel width. This is due to the dumping of sediment by the river, which was caused by the river inability to transport the sediment due to the decrease in flow power. The result of this is the transformation of the Snowy River into a braided river, which is not natural at all. <br />
<br />
The Snowy River’s flow is being diverted into the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers to aid in irrigation. This means that the flow in the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers is affected by rainfall in a completely different catchment, which would have an effect on the rivers biophysical processes. The flow from the Snowy Counts for 10% of the regular flow in the Murray River and 25% of the Murrumbidgee River’s flow, however in drought conditions this changes to 33% for the Murray River and 60% of the flow for the Murrumbidgee River (Snowy Water Inquiry, 1998). The Snowy Scheme also changed the seasonality of the flows in these rivers, the Tumut River that is a tributary of the Murrumbidgee River and it no longer peaks in August and September, it now peaks around October to January, which would have an effect on the rivers biophysical processes. A small biophysical benefit of the Snowy Mountains scheme would be the fact that it provides reliable water flow into the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers where much of Australia’s agricultural products come from. Another benefit is the claim that if coal power station where used to generate the electricity provided by the scheme 5,000,000 tonnes of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) would have been produced (Snowy Water Inquiry, 1998), so in theory the scheme does have some environmental benefits for other locations.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">The economic costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountains scheme are also easy to determine, but are complicated by the differing desires of all the groups involved. Also the biophysical effects were almost all actual “costs” of the Snowy Mountain Scheme. Economically however the scheme has both costs and benefits. The schemes main economic benefits lie in the provision of Hydroelectricity and the water for irrigation diverted down the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers. Undeniably the schemes completion led to many economic benefits but the current debate around he economic costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountain scheme is based around the return of an “environmental flow” to the snowy river. Environmental Flow is defined in The Snowy Hydro Corporatisation Ac 1997 (NSW) as “Flows in rivers and streams which mimic natural seasonal flows which restore and maintain the ecology of those rivers and streams” (Snowy Water Inquiry, 1998). For the Snowy River an Environmental flow would consist of at least 28% of the pre-scheme flow. At the moment the flow is less the 1% of the pre-scheme flow. The 28% required, as the environmental flow was determined by an expert panel and represents the minimum return of flow needed for the Snowy to recover. The economic costs and benefits of the environmental flow were many. The costs for not diverting the flow were mainly Biophysical and Social ones; there weren’t very many economic costs if there was no environmental flow. The Economic costs and benefits being debated were based around there being water released back into the Snowy River as environmental flow. The economic costs of an environmental flow being put into place are based around the loss of agricultural productivity due to the loss of irrigation water. The Murrumbidgee River Management board in their submission to the Snowy Water Inquiry estimate that every 1% reduction in irrigation water threatened $7,000,000 worth of agricultural production a year, threatened 54 jobs in agriculture and 150 jobs in the Murrumbidgee region. This may be an exaggeration as the River management board are trying to prove a point. However there are economic benefits being put forward, especially in the local area. It is claimed by many different groups that an increased flow down the Snowy River would increase tourism to the area. These groups also want to keep Lake Jindabyne at a high level also. Many companies rely on the river for rafting and other such adventure activities and increased river flow would also increase fishing opportunities in the river both of which would lead to increased tourism and therefore money to the area.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">The costs and benefits of the Snowy Mountain Scheme are the most complicated though when the social costs and benefits are considered. This is because social issues are hard to quantify, harder to find a direct solution to and often they are close to people’s hearts. The Snowy River is a heritage-listed river in Australia due to its idealised role in postcolonial history and has inspired some of the most widely known Australian art and poetry. This has led to it having high intrinsic value and many people feel that it should be looked after for this fact. Once again the resumption of flow down the Snowy River caused debate as to the relative social benefits and costs of the returning of flow to the Snowy River. The social benefits are to do with the restoration of a national icon to a semblance of its former health (if not its former glory) and the benefits to the nearby community due to an enhanced economy and the intrinsic benefits of a healthy river ecosystem nearby. The social costs of returning an environmental flow seem to revolve around what would happen to towns along the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers if their irrigation water level were reduced enough to have a serious economic impact.<br />
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There are many costs and benefits that the Snowy Mountain Scheme provides Biophysically, Economically and Socially and these are scattered unevenly over a large area. The major debate recently was about the return of 28% of the pre-scheme flow to the Snowy River as an environmental flow and its biophysical, economic and social costs and benefits. There weren’t to many biophysical costs and there were many biophysical benefits for an environmental flow returning to the Snowy River, this concentrated environmental benefits around the Snowy River and the surrounding areas. The economic costs of an environmental flow being created were concentrated around losses to the agricultural industry along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers due to the reduction of water for irrigation. Economic benefits from an environmental flow being put in place where concentrated in boosts to the local economy of the Snowy River area. The social costs and benefits of the allocation of an environmental flow were the hardest to locate geographically, but social problems could result from economic pressure along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers if an environmental flow was implemented. This shows that communities along the Snowy would benefit overall if some of the flow that should be proceeding down the Snowy River actually did flow down the river rather then being diverted down to the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers as it is thanks to the Snowy Mountain Scheme.<br />
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Communities that are reliant on irrigation from the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers mainly cover the costs of returning some of the Snowy rivers flow to it. This would make it in these communities best interest to resist any attempt to return the Snowy rivers flow to a semi-natural state, and as it is a major public relations disaster (normally) for any organization to try to actively thwart an attempt to improve the environmental quality these organizations have to concentrate on demonstrating how they would be negatively economically affected. This is a good example of how a resource and environment decision can provide benefits at one location at the expense of another location, which is why all decisions must be carefully thought through. The initial decision to build the scheme was providing benefits to the Murray and Murrumbidgee communities at the expense of the Snowy Rivers communities, and if a Cost-Benefit analysis was done at the time it probably wouldn’t have found in favour of the development (Geos 265 Lecture Material, 2002).<br />
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This seesawing of costs and benefits from the Snowy River communities to the Murray and Murrumbidgee communities and back again makes it nearly impossible for a win-win situation to develop. The economic factors would seem to favour no extra flow to the Snowy River however the biophysical and social factor favour at least a return to a minimum of 28% of the pre scheme flow (28% being the “magic number” recommended by an expert panel to save the Snowy River). The Snowy River however is a National Icon (and therefore an emotional issues for many people) and the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric scheme provides 17% of South East Australia’s electricity capacity which means that the decisions made over the Snowy are national issues and when considered at this scale it would be in the best interests of the country to do everything it can to aid in the rivers recovery to health, but it would be impossible to return the river to it’s former glory as this would have an adverse affect on the agricultural economy and electricity generation so that would never be allowed to proceed. With more efficient irrigation methods along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers an environmental flow could be maintained along the Snowy River with almost no economic costs.<br />
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<b><u>Bibliography</u></b><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Erskine, W., Terrazzolo, N., Warner, R., (1999) River rehabilitation from the Hydrogeomorphic impacts of a large Hydro-Electric power project: Snowy River, Australia, <i>Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 15, pp. 3-24</i><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Erskine, W., Turner, L., Terrazzolo, N., Warner, R., (1999) Recovery of the Snowy River: Politics and Rehabilitation, <i>Australian Geographical Studies 37, pp. 330-337</i><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Fagan, B., Geos265 Lecture Material, Macquarie University, 18/9/2002<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Snowy Water Inquiry (1998) <i>Snowy Water Inquiry: Issues Paper</i>, Snowy Water Inquiry, Sydney<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Submissions to the Snowy Water Inquiry <a href="http://www.snowywaterinquiry.org.au/submission.htm" style="color: black;">www.snowywaterinquiry.org.au/submission.htm</a> accessed September 2002<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;">Young, A. (2000) <i>Environmental Change in Australia since 1788</i>, Oxford University Press, Melbourne</span></div>Anthonyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16160423318306128353noreply@blogger.com0